Gender discourse in modern English and Russian belles-letters
Introduction
theme of the research work is «Gender
discourse in modern English and Russian belles-letters». According to many
linguists, the concept of «discourse» is very helpful in understanding why men
must resist negative stereotypes of their gender imposed by those with a
negative mind-set. Discourse is a term that is often used synonymously with
«ideology». However, it is much more than this, and is a central concept in
trying to make sense of the contested area of understanding gender.study of
language and gender has increasingly become the study of discourse and gender.
While phonological, lexical, and other kinds of linguistic analysis continue to
be influential, the interdisciplinary investigation of discourse-level
phenomena, always a robust area of language and gender scholarship, has become
the central approach of the field. Hundreds of books, articles, and
dissertations in numerous disciplines examine the intersection between
discourse and gender from a variety of analytic perspectives. This
proliferation of research presents problems for any attempt at a comprehensive
overview, for although many of these studies are explicitly framed as drawing
on the insights of discourse analysis, their approaches are so different that
it is impossible to offer a unified treatment of discourse analysis as a tool
for the study of language and gender.interest in literary texts is of
particular significance for some of the broader questions among students.
Research on adolescent patterns of participation and achievement in
education generally, and in literacy more particularly, have indicated
that there are significant numbers of boys who are falling behind the levels of
achievement of their female peers. Understanding the role interest plays in
initiating and maintaining literacy skills will help address this problem. Does
student engagement with particular texts depend upon students coming to the
task with a well-developed interest in literature? Does reading further into a
text depend on the level of interest aroused when students first encounter the
text? Are these responses to the texts different for boys and girls? These
phenomena determine the topicality of our research work.paper is a
result of a keen and long-lasting interest of its author in applied linguistics
in combination with the factors that enable people to interpret fairy tales in
both native and foreign language. The question is whether on the basis of discourse
analysis theories it is possible to make it easy for foreign language learners
to read texts with full comprehension., the aim of our diploma work is
to define the role of gender in discourse through English, Russian and Kazakh
belles-letters, exactly fairy-tales.order to achieve the aim of the work it is
necessary to decide the following objectives:
· to look
through the literature;
· to demonstrate
the approaches of the investigation the notion;
· to make
discourse analysis of belles-letters (fairy tales);
· to make the
comparative analysis of gender differentiation in Kazakh, Russian and English
fairy tales.object of the research is gender discourse in
belles-letters. subject to reveal discourse of gender differentiation in
English, Russian and Kazakh fairy tales.
To achieve the object of the work the following objectives
of the research can be pointed out: discourse analysis, quantitative and
qualitative analyses, complex analysis of literary work, descriptive and
comparative methods.
Scientific novelty of the
research paper is in the fact that the given paper is the attempt to define the
gender discourse in belles-letters, exactly in fairy tales of different
languages as English, Russian and Kazakh.
The theoretical and methodological basis consist of
the analyzing of the research of the Т. Van Dake, J. Austin, J. Searle, M. Fuko, E. Goffmana, S.I.
Vinogradova, B.P. Parshin, V.Z. Demjankova, J.S. Stepanova on the given subject
«discourse». We have taken for the analyses the following works: in English -
English Folktales (edited by D. Keding and A. Douglas): «The Pottle of
Brains», «The Old Woman and her Pig», «The Farmer and the Cheese», «Jack
Turnip», «Lazy Jack»; in Russian - Михаил Евграфович Салтыков-Щедрин «Недреманное око», «Дикий помещик», «Баран непомнящий», «Повесть о том, как один мужик двух генералов прокормил»; in Kazakh - «Красавица
Кункей», «Три сына бедняка», «Чудесный сад».writing the research work
we used such methods as selecting of bibliography, textual and
interpreting analysis and comparison of the literary works of the examined
period of time.
The practical significance of the
research consists of use of scientific - theoretical results and the fact, that
actual material can be used at reading lectures on the course of English
Literature and drawing up of the manuals and various grants. structure: of
the work is presented by Introduction, Theoretical and Practical parts,
Conclusion, List of used literature (bibliography) and Appendix. The whole work
consists of 62 pages. The theme, actuality, the aim, object, subject,
methods of investigation of the work are identified in the introduction. In the
first part description of the term 'discourse' itself, including examples of
its various types and functions are described. It also presents a thorough
analysis of the function of a gender in belles-letters, a historical background
of how scholars became interested in the use of language, the manners in which
they examined speech and writing, as well as it depicts the division of
discursive devices. The practical part includes the comparative analysis of
Kazakh, Russian and English fairy tales. The work is summed up in the
conclusion.
1. Theories of discourse as theories of
gender: discourse analysis in language and gender studies
.1 The concept of discourse in linguistics
media, being a component of interiorization,
plays the important role in the course of gender socialization. Occurrence of
«new journalism» and the information addressed exclusively to women has been
noted in the end of the XIX century. Gradually press «feminization» was
replaced «equalization» that has caused serious discussions on a wave of
success of feminist movement. Thereof the tendency of dedication of researches
to women in journalism was in the early eighties of the XX century observed,
however basically in socially - economic aspect; after there was variety of the
works devoted to studying of gender relations in journalism, and also to
transformations in public consciousness concerning a role of women and
information representation. The given fact was an incitement to start the
discourse analysis, in particular media, as display means in it of new
realities of our society. The given researches of a media discourse are
connected not only with the language use, but also with communicator of
speeches, society and culture. Thus, the discourse-analysis covers such
academic disciplines which focus attention to various aspects of human
activity: anthropology, journalism, rhetoric, the literature and cultural
science, sociology, psychology, geography, jurisprudence and formation.
Therefore non-linguists address in the works to linguistics by means of
discourse-analysis studying, and work of philologists gets interdisciplinary
value.the given work views of modern researchers as Т. Van Dake, J. Austin, J.
Searle, M. Fuko, E. Goffmana, S.I. Vinogradova, B.P. Parshin, V.Z. Demjankova,
J.S. Stepanova on the given subject «discourse» are presented and also various
approaches for an analysis discourse are offered.its introduction to modern
science the term 'discourse' has taken various, sometimes very broad, meanings.
In order to specify which of the numerous senses is analyzed in the following
work it has to be defined. Originally the word 'discourse' comes from Latin
'discursus' which denoted 'conversation, speech'. Thus understood, however,
discourse refers to too wide an area of human life, therefore only discourse
from the vantage point of linguistics, and especially applied linguistics, is
explained here.is no agreement among linguists as to the use of the term
discourse in that some use it in reference to texts, while others claim it
denotes speech which is for instance illustrated by the following definition:
«Discourse: a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a
sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke,
or narrative» [1, 105]. On the other hand Dakowska, being aware of differences
between kinds of discourses indicates the unity of communicative intentions as
a vital element of each of them. Consequently she suggests using terms 'text'
and 'discourse' almost interchangeably betokening the former refers to the
linguistic product, while the latter implies the entire dynamics of the
processes [2, 81]. According to Cook novels, as well as short conversations or
groans might be equally rightfully named discourses.concept of «discourse»
is very helpful in understanding why men must resist negative stereotypes of
their gender imposed by those with a negative mind-set. Discourse is a term
that is often used synonymously with «ideology». However, it is much more than
this, and is a central concept in trying to make sense of the contested area of
understanding gender..S. Stepanov believes that the discourse is «language in
language», but presented in the form of a special social reality [3, 11]. The
discourse exists, mainly, in texts, but there is a special grammar, a special
lexicon, special rules of the use and syntax, special semantics - finally - the
special world… The phenomenon of a discourse, its possibilities are the proof
of the thesis «language is the house of spirit» and, to a certain extent, of
the thesis - «language is the life house».his turn V.Z. Demjankov defines a
discourse as the text in its formation before a mind of the interpreter which
consists of sentences or its fragments, and the contents of discourse often but
not always concentrates around some «basic» concept, named «the topic discourse»
or «discursive topic» [4, 32-43].the given definitions such concepts, as a
discourse and the text are intertwined. But what is the difference of a
discourse from the text? The text is a set of sentences, and the discourse is
the base creating the text contextually-connected. According to V.Z. Demjankov,
it is considered that discourse is the existence of the mental world which
nuclear structures are «idealized cognitive models», «frames» or concepts
behind text frameworks. The set of given structures will make semantic system,
semantics of the mental world.discourse also differs from the act of
communication representing natural activity of people in a society - the most
widespread form of use of language which covers linguistic activity. At the
same time, even if the act of communication concerns the most widespread
functions of language use, it all the same is the text of the certain kind
constructed by rules of social use. Thus, the term «discourse», according to M.
Stabbs, in connection with the discourse-analysis and the analysis of the act
of communications is not the same. The former contains the latter; therefore
the discourse-analysis should not be interpreted as the special
grammatical-focused direction of the analysis of the act of communication [5,
4].discourse in metapragmatical conditions is presented not only as a perceived
context: conversation, interview, consultations, interrogation etc., but it
also covers extralinguistic conditions which operate the given situations of
language use. Thus, there are questions: how people use language in the given
social context? What freedom is given to them in the use of language and what
interferes with it depending on a context?the act of communications and the
world of the user there is something more, that enters into philosophy of the
act of communication: the reason that human language activity underlies on the
basis of laws of more subject domain - a discourse understood as the general
context of human language in use. The metapragmatist, thus, is beyond
philosophy of act of communication: it reflects discursive context and checks,
how much it is active as a result of use of acts of language dialogue, the
latters are considered in the conditions of a context as they are pragmatic
acts on the essence. Thus, according to G. May, active manufacture of pragmatic
acts naturally assumes the existence of a certain society with its implicit and
explicit values, norms, rules and laws and the established conditions of life:
economic, social, political and cultural. These conditions concern one
metaphorical expression - «society factory» - and become visible (basically by
means of language and other kinds of human activity) and are covered by one
concept «discourse».French philosopher M. Fuko characterizes a discourse as the
practice of creation of sense from signs. This practice falls outside the
limits of simple understanding of statements: sense creation should be
perceived as active creation of value, as practice which regularly forms
subjects about which she speaks. Discursive space is the huge chaos, ready to
accept language and word influence. And on the contrary, discursive space
equips with metapragmatically necessary material for value creation. Out of the
given space where objects are created, and nothing occurs: no human practice is
possible, as polyliterally nothing has sense [6, 191].conditions which M. Fuko
places into human practice of manufacture of value make a discourse different
from a simple set of sentences and statements. As the given conditions are
realized be communicators, they cannot be identified with the restrictions
established by grammar, the content and even rules of colloquial practice;
falling outside the limits all of them, they represent a sociality of the
person. Discourse practice is a practice of a society: creative space in which
M. Fuko's objects appear, and created and transformed by a society. Among the
objects generated by a society in discursive practice, human social relations
are the main; the discourse, thus, according to M. Fuko, represents the plural
phenomenon, through which social manufacture of value takes place, and their
set creates a society as that.discourse creates and recreates public relations:
it creates also the individual user, and gives ability to the individual to
exist and co-exist with other individuals. Objects can enter into systems
according to their characteristics (for example: phonemes in phonology), or
according to their distributive properties (as morphemes in morphology and
syntax); these objects then form structures in which classified subjects change
the status and character of the fact of its structuring dictated by integrity.
Thus, the word is more, than sequence of phonemes, the sentence - more than the
sequence of morphemes and words connected together, and the text is more than
sequence of sentences. On the basis of the above-stated it is possible to draw
a conclusion, that the discourse combines social structures which it creates as
system which generate it, and It proves to be true definition of the discourse
given by S.I. Vinogradov - «the complete communicative event consisting in
interaction of participants of communications by means of verbal texts and-or
other sign complexes in a certain situation and defined socio-cultural
conditions of dialogue» [7, 139]. Accordingly the formula to the given
definition will be following:
Discourse = text + interactivity + a
situational context + a cultural context.
However M. Fuko's formula to which scientists
often addressed, includes two components:
Discourse = «already-told» + «never-told» [8, 27], other authors,
for example, D. Biber, on the contrary allocate set of situational variations making
of the
following
parametres in a discourse [9, 156]:
) communicative characteristics of participants;
2) relations between the addressee and the
receiver;
3) a situation;
) the channel;
) relations of participants to the text;
) installations, intentions and the purposes;
) a theme.is a number of definitions of the term
«discourse», however in this paper we take the concept of a discourse as «the
speech shipped into life», according to N.D. Arutjunova's classical definition
[10, 17], and we consider it in close interaction with social factors.
From here the conclusion arises, important for
understanding of the discourse-analysis: it is impossible to approach to
language as to abstract system as the discourse is both a knowledge source, and
result. It becomes obvious, that subject of a discourse-analysis is very wide -
«language in its use» for J. Brown and J. Iul, «statement» for D. Shiffrin,
«verbal communications» for J. Renkem. In the widest sense, we agree with M.L.
Makarova's point of view: the discourse analysis is an integrated sphere of
studying of language dialogue from the point of view of its form and function
[11, 17]. Many analysts are at a loss to answer, what makes a
discourse-analysis a discipline. Dividing B. Jonestones's sight, it is possible
to assert, that «a discourse-analysis is a method of research which is used by
many scientists for the various academic and not academic purposes, various
disciplines, for the purpose of a finding of the answer to various questions:
How the arrangement of information structures in sentences can signal about
value? How speakers specify semantic intentions and how listeners interpret
this received information and what cognitive abilities underlie on the basic of
human use of symbols?» [12, 5].
In the area of pragmatists the discourse-analysis
considers «body» of communications and helps to describe main principles of
interpretation and ways of use of statements for achievement of the
communicative purposes. Moreover, it is important to define the social and
gender stratification. In what degree the gender aspect influences creation of
this or that type of a discourse? Cording to P.B. Parshin [13, 89], specificity
of the social agent is essential to define the type of the discourse; therefore
the given aspect should be included in a discourse-analysis. Depending on the
agent the discourse can be: feministic, pre-election, Soviet, racist,
presidential etc. Researches within the frame of a discourse and a gender
are so various, that there is no uniform approach which would be named as «the
feministic discourse-analysis». Actually, not all approaches are considered
feministic in the given direction, but all of them are considered in four
different, but interconnected research traditions: Anthropological (cultural
aspect), sociological (social interaction), critical (text), and the most modern
anthropological (historical trajectories of a discourse). Thus, we come to the
fact that the discourse is a social, cultural and political phenomenon and the
discourse theory is not simply reflection of a society, culture and the power,
but it is also perennial source of the additional information.the present
research the critical discourse-analysis which representatives are N. Ferklou, Т. van Dake, R. Vodak is
important. The given approach considers language as means for manufacture and
power and ideology reproduction. The given statement is also proved in
sociology, thus, giving the basis to consider, that the gender discourse is
considered as the form of «symbolical violence» [14, 208] which is understood
as a kind of the symbolical struggle which purpose is the symbolical power and
the symbolical capital. Hence, it is possible to consider any discourse
political. It is possible to agree with it partially as pragmalinguistic
principle of the analysis takes place in researches of discourse of such
scientists as J. Searle, J. Austin, and P. Grace. From the given point of view,
the discourse is a world of thought designed by the author in which it immerses
the interpreter. The skilled author, especially the politician, anticipates
such speech suggestion by preparatory processing of another's consciousness so
that the new relation to a subject harmonized with the settled representations
- realized or not realized. Indistinct semantics of language promotes flexible
introduction in another's consciousness: the new sight is modified (it is an
original mimicry) under the influence of system of the settled opinions of the
interpreter, and at the same time it changes this system» [15, 3-18].the
aforesaid it follows, that aspects of public relations are expressed and created
in a discourse by the power, or by the cooperation. According to D. Tannen, the
power deals there where dissymmetric relations in human relations take place,
and cooperation, on the contrary, - symmetric [16, 77]. Men, protecting power
territory, apply various receptions to support of manufacture of imperious
relations, e.g. strategy on fall. The woman in the given context is considered
as basic «consumer», and the man - «manufacturer» of a discourse. The given
context is mainly presented by such version of a discourse, as institutional.
The formula of the given discourse is presented E.I. Shejgal [7, 16]
Discourse =sublanguage + the text + a
context
The following understanding of a discourse is
offered to the researchers:
Communications system = real + the
potential.
«In potential measurement the discourse
represents the semiotics space including verbal and nonverbal signs, and also
representations about typical models of speech behavior and a set of speech
actions and genres necessary for the given type of communications», - writes
E.I. Shejgal [7, 16].social group carries out additional function of
differentiation to a gender sign: accordingly, it dictates presence of a label
for performance of the set social role; thus, specificity of style of gender
communicative behavior of women and men is traced. The mentality of society in
turn sets variability of representations on such concepts, as «feminine» and
«masculine», i.e. gender model which is necessary for performance by the
individual of social, gender roles and norms in a society during the
certain historical period. There is a certain related communication with
ritual, but change of a paradigm of values involves change in behavior of
society. Hence, on the basis of all resulted above formulas it is possible to
present following components of a discourse accounting social and
gender aspect:
) the agent;
) intention;
) a sublanguage (social aspect);
) a sublanguage (gender aspect);
) the situational text;
) interactivity;
) a cultural context.of results of researches of
the given phenomenon shows, that the foreshortening of research of a discourse
depends on those problems which face to scientists. Leaning against J.S.
Stepanova, V.Z. Demjankova and E.I. Shejgal's concepts, we come to discourse
definition as «language in language», but presented in the form of a special
social reality, i.e. the discourse is considered in close interaction with
social factors. It exists, mainly, in texts, which have a special grammar, a
special lexicon, special rules of the use and syntax, special semantics -
finally - the special world. Conceptually its creation is influenced by factors
of situational-social, gender and cultural plan during interaction of
participants in semiotics space. The discourse is created in a certain
situation of dialogue where participants possess social roles, installations,
intentions.
Linguistic Approaches to Gender in
Literary Texts
In regard to the question of gender and
discourse, we need to identify the discourses around the nature of males in our
society, and look for the power effects, or implications, of these discourses -
for it is these discourses that will determine the social and political
responses to men’s and boys’ health needs.discourses about what constitutes
«woman» and «man» have appeared over time. In European cultures, the Victorian
era’s dominant discourse on women saw them as weak creatures, subject to
control by their emotions and reproductive biology. The power effects of
this discourse led to social practices, and even legislation, concerning the
appropriate occupations and roles of women, and it limited their opportunities
to participate in the public sphere of social life. Men, on the other hand,
were in this period seen as unable to provide the nurturing required by children,
rather as the disciplinarians and provider’s of their family’s material needs.
Thus, the power effects of this gender discourse on men resulted in their being
largely excluded from the sphere of private life.regarding men and women still
differ today. This was exemplified in a presentation by an earlier speaker, who
noted that young women smoke to control body weight so as to attain a socially
defined «attractive» body shape. It was claimed that young men smoke because
they see it as a «manly» thing to do. If we deconstruct this statement, we can
see that there is an underlying discourse - women are perceived as being
subject to outside influences (to their detriment) - that they lack «agency»,
the power to initiate actions in their own lives - they are largely victims of
external forces. Men, however, are seen as having power to choose, as being
agents for their own actions, so that men smoke to create a persona. The result
(power effects) of this type of discourse, which is common in many areas of men’s
and women’s health, is that we attempt to change environments for women (by
reducing the emphasis on thin bodies), but tell men to change themselves (by
stopping smoking). We locate women’s health challenges outside of themselves,
but the challenges to men’s health we see as arising within the men themselves
(or in the abstracted men of «masculinities»).main way of social communications
and manipulation is the language showing various situations of social
communications which participants in the conditions of direct dialogue can be
at least two real partners and in the conditions of text communications - two
potential partners. The language signs making semiotics space of the oral and
written text represent social life under different corners, including its
political component. The political space of society is designed by various
political movements, parties, associations, groups which structure includes the
politicians differing not only on political views, on level of linguo-cultural
competence, on popularity among members of the given society, but also under
such biological factor (feminine, masculine) which deserve special research.
The modern gender theory does not try to challenge distinction between women
and men, believing, that the fact of distinctions is not so important, as their
socio-cultural estimation and interpretation, and also construction of
imperious system on the basis of these distinctions.second wave of feminist
movement in the West in the end of 60s - the beginnings-70s of the XX century
has given a push to development of researches which are called now as gender.
The steady designation of the whole area of modern interdisciplinary researches
by the term «gender» follows tradition of the English-speaking research
literature: «gender» means «a social sex» unlike a «biological» sex». ‘Gender’
is one of the central and fundamental concepts of a modern society which
requires understanding. T. Lauretis has made digression to dictionaries of the
various countries on values of a category «gender» and in the American
dictionary of a heritage of English language [17, 18]: the word «gender» is
defined, first of all, as the classification term, and also as the
morphological characteristic («grammatical gender»). Other meaning of the word
gender in this dictionary is «sex classification; a sex». It is interesting,
that English language (where is not presented neither masculine’s, nor a
feminine gender) has accepted gender as a category referring to a sex. In the
same American dictionary it is possible to find out one more gender definition
is representation. The word has no adequate translation in Russian, and its
writing and a pronunciation is copied from English language. In I.R. Galperin's
big English-Russian dictionary it is possible to see, that gender has two
meanings. The first is a grammatical gender and the second is a sex, as a
playful designation [18, 668]. Gender definition (gender) as socio-cultural
floor sex is not full for an explanation, and it is proved by a definition
given in the glossary of the Moscow Institute of gender researches: «The gender
is difficult socio-cultural construct: distinctions in roles, behavior, mental
and emotional characteristics between man's and female, (designed) by a
society. The gender is designed through certain system of socialization, a
division of labor and the cultural norms accepted in a society, a role and
stereotypes» [19]. The term «gender» is understood as the representation of
relations showing an attachment принадлежность to a class, group, a
category (that corresponds to one of meanings of the word «род» - «gender»
in Russian). Thus, the gender attributes or assigns to any object or the
individual a position in a class, and, hence, and a position concerning others,
already made classes. After A.V. Kirilina, we consider concept «a gender» and
«sex» as synonyms and we understand under these concepts «socio-cultural and
conventional phenomena and discursive factors of variable intensity, instead of
biological phenomena» [20, 12].the western general scientific approaches to
this category, O.A. Voronina defines seven approaches. So, the gender can be
considered as a socially-demographic category; a social design; subjectivity;
ideological construct; a network; technology and a cultural metaphor [21, 13 - 95].gender
researches exists two conceptual approaches: the theory of socio-cultural
determinism (accidentalism) and the biodeterminism theory (existentialism).
Supporters of the socio-biological concept of gender point out distinctions in
women and men’s behavior, in particular communicative; using psycho
physiological distinctions connect them with distinction in speech processes
and designate gender distinctions by sexual distinctions. Biodeterminists
challenge opinion, that distinctions between representatives of two gender
groups exist both in physiological, and in the social plan. In frameworks of
sociodetermenistic directions, according to E.A. Kartusina, it is especially
underlined, that «representations about «masculinity» and «feminist», along
with communicative behavior, are designed, instead of simply reflected in
language as language is represented in the way of formation of consciousness»
[22, 26]. А.В. Kirilina scientifically
proved two approaches as two periods of development of the gender researches,
one of which has come in the stead of another: «…The gender approach is based
on a number of methodological principles, major of which - sex relativisation,
that is refusal of a biodeterminism and gender interpretation as socially and
cultural designed phenomenon. The recognition of cultural conditionality of a
sex, its institutional and ritualized character conducts to the recognition of
its conventionality, unequally shown as in various cultural and language
communities, so at various stages of their development. All it allows to
approach to «masculinity» and «feminity» phenomena not as to an invariable
natural reality, and as to dynamic, changeable products of development of the
human society, giving in to a social manipulation and modeling and subject to
the strongest influence of cultural tradition» [23, 134-135]. However, in our
opinion, socio-deterministic and biodetermenistic approaches oppose today, the
relation between concepts «gender» and «sex» is differentiated in various
formulations of the concept «gender». O.V. Ryabov explains the relation of
concepts «sex» and «gender» as whole and a part: «the sex consists of a
biological sex and socio-cultural sex in which, in turn, should be
distinguished a social and cultural-symbolical component. Thus «the sex» and «a
gender» correspond among themselves not as a sort and a kind, but as whole and
part» [24, 52]. In other treatment wider concept is the «gender» uniting a
biological and social sex: «Gender» is some kind of an interdisciplinary intrigue
in which basis set of sciences about the person are weaved, about its not only
biological, but also socially and cultural caused specificity, an intrigue as
sets of circumstances, events and actions in which centre there is a person,
the personality» [25, 9], in our opinion, Special attention demands gender
definition as important cognitive category used at interaction of people as in
linguistics the concept «gender» corresponds with designed in language and
fixed in consciousness of its carriers in the images, norms, traditions and
style of behaviors, and also with set of attributes which are attributed to men
and women in defined socio-cultural community.)interrelation of language and
gender was focus of many researches which history breaks up to two periods. For
the first period prominent features were: 1) irregular character of research;
2) «man's» language, and a deviation from norm - «female» was considered as
norm. The second stage is marked by the large-scale researches caused by growth
of interest to pragmatic aspect of linguistics, development of sociolinguistics
and essential changes in traditional distribution of man's and female roles in
a society.background of gender researches in linguistics leaves the roots in
antiquity and is connected with occurrence of the symbolical-semantic concept
of a gender category (genus), considering it in a close connection with a
direct reality: presence of people of a different sex. The given
symbolical-semantic hypothesis was supported by such scientists as M. Gerder,
J. Grimm, V. Humboldt, etc., that has predetermined its long domination in the
linguistic description. The symbolical-semantic hypothesis has not found
acknowledgement because of opening of languages in which the gender category is
absent. Nevertheless, in frameworks of criticism of the given hypothesis and
gradual replacement by its morphological and syntactic explanation of gender
category invariable there was a recognition of that the gender category itself
is capable to affect human perception of corresponding words and concepts.theme
of mutual relation of language and gender was peripheral in linguistics, and
regular researches in the given area were not spent. Only in the beginning of
last century the given problematic - the language and floor theme - began to be
put in the forefront for two reasons: first, because of heightened interest to
it of linguists with a world name (E. Sepir, F. Mautner, O. Espersen) and,
secondly, in the linguistic description the social plan considering language in
connection with a society and the person being in it began to be put forward.
It occurrence of new directions in linguistics - sociolinguistics, the
pragmatist, psycholinguistics, the discourse and communications theory
speaks.the end of the 60th - beginning of 70th of the XX
century gender researches have received a powerful impulse thanks to the New
women's movement in the USA and Germany therefore in linguistics there was the
new direction named feministic linguistics (FL - the term has been entered by
L. Push) or feministic criticism of language. R. Lakoff's work «Language and a
place of the woman», proved anthropocentricity of language and defectiveness of
the image of the woman in the picture of the world reproduced in language [26,
84].interrelation of language and gender was focus of many researches which
history breaks up to two periods. For the first period prominent features were:
1) irregular character of research; 2) «man's» language, and a deviation from
norm - «female» was considered as norm. The second stage is marked by the
large-scale researches caused by growth of interest to pragmatic aspect of
linguistics, development of sociolinguistics and essential changes in
traditional distribution of man's and female roles in a society.background of
gender researches in linguistics leaves the roots in antiquity and is connected
with occurrence of the symbolic-semantic concept of a category of a sort
(genus), considering it in a close connection with a direct reality: presence
of people of a different floor. The given symbolic-semantic hypothesis was
supported by such scientists as M. Gerder, J. Grimm, V. Humboldt, etc., that
has predetermined its long domination in the linguistic description. The
Cimvoliko-semantic hypothesis has not found acknowledgement because of opening
of languages in which the sort category is absent. Nevertheless, in frameworks
of criticism of the given hypothesis and gradual replacement by its
morphological and syntactic explanation of a category of a sort invariable
there was a recognition of that the sort category itself is capable to affect
human perception of corresponding words and concepts.theme of mutual relation
of language and gender was peripheral in linguistics, and regular researches in
the given area were not made. Only in the beginning of last century the given
problematic - the language and sex theme - began to be put in the forefront for
two reasons: first, because of heightened interest to it of world-known
linguists (E. Sepir, F. Mautner, O. Espersen) and, secondly, the social plan
considering language in connection with a society and the person in it began to
be put forward in the linguistic description. It explains the occurrence of new
directions in linguistics - sociolinguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics,
the discourse and communications theory.
The feministic linguistics has two currents: the
first concerns research of language for the purpose of revealing asymmetries in
its system, directed against women. These asymmetries have received the name of
language sexism. It is a question of the patriarchal stereotypes fixed in
language and imposing to its carriers a certain picture of the world in which
the supporting role is taken away to women and negative qualities are
attributed basically. Researches of language and sex asymmetries are based on
Sepir-Uorf’s hypothesis: language not only a society product, but also means of
formation of thinking and mentality. It allows representatives of feministic
linguistics to assert that all languages functioning in patriarchal and post
patriarchal cultures are man's languages and are under construction on the
basis of a man's picture of the world. With the appearance of S.
Tremel-Pletts's works «Linguistik and Frauensprache» and also L. Push’s work
«Das Deutsche als Mannersprache» the feministic linguistics has received great
distribution in the USA and Germany. As M. Dmitrieva considers, supporters of
language reform pursued following aims: 1) to make women more appreciable in
language; 2) to remove gender relevance; 3) to make gender presence at language
less obvious [27, 258].
The second direction investigates features of
communications in the unisex and mixed groups (D. Cameron, J. Coates). These
researches concern communicatively-pragmatic function of language. Studying of
speech behavior within the limits of the given direction has allowed revealing
and to describe man's and female strategy of speech behavior in details. It is
possible to carry its strongly pronounced polemic character, attraction to the
linguistic description of results of all spectrum of sciences about the person
(psychology, sociology, ethnography, anthropology, history), and also a number
of successful attempts to affect the language policy to specificity of
feministic criticism of language [28, 234].90s gender researches became
extended enough. Existence of special man's and female languages
(gender-linguistics) with constant signs which in due time has described Robin
Lakoff. Linguists have come to necessity to study speech of women and men in a
concrete context. According to A.V. Kirilina, the period of formation of
primary development of a linguistic component domestic genderlogy and gender
researches is at the end stage. [23, 14]. The given opinion is considered
correct only partly as their feature, according to D. Tannen, consists that
they did not proceed from feministic ideology as it has occurred in the USA and
the Western Europe, and had no sexist orientation in researches. And the parity
of a grammatical gender and an extra linguistic category «sex» was studied
within the limits of other disciplines - morphology, grammar, lexicology - long
before formation of the feministic concept of language and formation of the
term «gender» in the West [29, 358].O.L. Kamenskaya, considering features of
works of gender researches in linguistics, it is offered to differentiate them
on two groups. So, the first direction - the gender linguistics - investigates
language and speech behavior with application of gender methods, and object of
the second direction - linguistic genderology - is studying of a category of a
gender with application of linguistic toolkit [30, 13-19].linguistic researches
of a gender interdependent and complementary, nevertheless, at the detailed
analysis it is possible to allocate six directions of development linguistic
gender logy in modern linguistics:
) Socio-linguistic gender researches;
) Feministic linguistics;
) Actually gender researches studying language
behavior of both sexes;
) Masculinity research (the youngest direction
which has arisen in the end of 20 century);
) Psycholinguistic researches (within the limits of
this direction works are spent to areas of neorolinguistics, studying speeches
ontogenesis, here belongs both biodetermenistic direction investigating
cognitive features and distinctions between men and women and their display in
speech);
) cross-cultural, linguo-cultural researches,
including a hypothesis of gender subcultures., in brief it is possible to
distribute them in three directions: socio - and psycholinguistic,
linguo-cultural, communicative-discursive [31, 78-94].a whole at studying of a
problem of mutual relation of language and a gender and presence of certain
features in man's and female verbal behavior at present it is possible to
allocate three basic approaches:
1) purely gender approach is reduced in treatment
of exclusively social nature of language of women and men and aimed at
revealing of those language distinctions which it is possible to explain
features of redistribution of the power in a society, thus language is defined
as certain functional derivative of the basic language, used when partners in
speech are at different steps of social hierarchy. A theoretical basis of such
approach is M. Fuko's concepts and the sociological concept of genders have
made by E. Goffman.
2) the second - socio-psycho-linguistic approach
- reduces the second «female» and «man's» language to features of language
behavior of the woman and the man, for it statistics make a skeleton for
construction of linguistic theories;
) the third approach does an emphasis on
cognitive aspect of these distinctions. For it appears the main thing not only
definition of rate of distinctions and operating by its indicators, but also an
establishment of that difficultly gives in to an explanation [31, 82].,
interdisciplinary character as confirms A.V. Kirillina, allocates two
directions of researches: 1) a gender - as not linguistic object; 2) a gender -
as the object of the linguistic description, is thus allocated metagender and
gender level. The gender enters into sphere of researches as a cultural
phenomenon, its reflection in language and designing in communicative
interaction of individuals. All it allows to involve in research a wide range
of linguistic questions - semantics, to the pragmatics, liguoculturology,
cognitive linguistics, the discourse analysis etc. [23, 12].representation of
the majority of linguists on gender, now at studying of a problem of mutual
relation of language and a gender and presence of certain features in female
and man's verbal, allocate following directions of gender researches:
Revealing of certain distinctions of language
levels: phonetics, morphology, semantics and syntax, and also distinctions in
the field of verbal stereotypes in perception of women and men;
- Revealing of semantic distinctions which speak
features of redistribution of social functions in a society - the approach
exclusively from the gender positions, connected with the social nature of
language of women and men;
- Construction of psycholinguistic theories in
which «female» and «man's» languages are reduced to features of language
behavior of women and men;
Cognitive explanation of the revealed indicators.
In this case important it appears not only definition of rate of divergences,
but also an establishment of communication with various aspects of a picture of
the world.each country studying of communication of language and a sex has the
features, in linguistics the great value takes place developments of this or
that concept as history of concepts, and systems of their oppositions to other
concepts depend on this or that cultural tradition.of gender researches in
modern linguistics of the post-Soviet territory is characterized by a number of
factors [27, 234-242]:
Features of language in connection with a sex of
its carriers in the Soviet linguistics are considered within the limits of
traditional linguistic paradigms: morphology, syntax, etc. the sex within the
limits of a separate direction as it occurred in the West, was not considered;
Formed today gender direction is characterized by
undeveloped methodology and some terminological ambiguity. Mainly, as to
interpretation of concept «gender»;
In view of small quantity of works of own scientists
it is necessary to lean against works of foreign scientists.is necessary to
notice, that it is possible to find conclusions in works of the American and
German linguists in all directions of linguistic gender researches; however it
is required to consider the specificity necessary in connection with ethno
cultural distinctions., gender researches have no one expressed dominant.
Modern researchers-linguists consider, that in researches on gender linguistics
recently there was a turn to a discourse, and studying of interaction of
language and a gender, in certain degree, became synonymous to discourse and
gender studying. Told at all does not mean decrease in the importance for
gender linguistics of such types of the analysis as grammatical, phonologic,
lexical etc. At the same time interdisciplinary research of the phenomena
discursive order has taken the central place in researches of interaction of
language and a gender [32, 36].Kazakhstan linguistics throughout the long
period of time the sex factor was considered in the linguistic description
along with other pragmatic categories of the description. The analysis of
imperious relations and a feministic discourse in linguistics were absent for
the reasons both political, and social character. The analysis of available
works allows defining a number of lines on which intensive research work is
conducted. First of all it psycho-and socio-linguistic researches such as B.H.
Hasanov, M.Z. Arenova, and also studying of names of persons female and male,
categories of a sort and the problems connected with it reference by R.S.
Amrenova, T.M. Abdrahmanova., in the general plan gender research in
linguistics concerns two groups of problems:
Language and reflection in it of a sex. The
purpose of such approach consists in the description and an explanation of how
presence of people of a different floor is demonstrated in language (are
investigated first of all nominative system, a lexicon, syntax, a sort
category, etc.), what estimations are attributed to men and women and in what
semantic areas they are most considerably expressed;
- Speech and, as a whole, communicative behavior
of men and women where typical strategy and tactics are allocated gender
specific choice of units of a lexicon, ways of achievement of success in
communications, preferences in a choice of lexicon, syntactic designs etc.
Undoubtedly, at studying of communicative
behavior it is necessary to consider the gender factor as public institutes and
the culture, influencing gender socialization, dictate certain stereotypes of
behavior, but thus also it is necessary to consider the status, age, an
accessory to social group.given review of history of formation of researches in
gender study gives the basis to assert, that it is necessary to consider extra
linguistic and introlinguistic factors of influence of a gender on discourse
formation, to consider ethno cultural specificity that is very important for
intercultural communications during a globalization epoch. So, we come to
conclusion, that now researches in gender study consider a gender not only as
social construct, and also as institutional, ritualized, socio-cultural
phenomenon and its reflection in language, but also designing in communicative
interaction of individuals that is reflected in prompt development of new
branch in modern linguistics - linguistic gender study.
.2 Belles-letters style as one of the
functional styles of literary standard of the English language
to J. Mistrнk stylistics can be defined as the
study of choice and the types of use of linguistic, extra-linguistic and
aesthetic mean, as well as particular techniques used in communication.
Considering the generally accepted differentiation between linguistic and
literary stylistics, J. Mistrнk suggests that we carefully distinguish between
the language style, belles-lettres and literary style (ibid., p. 30):
The language style is a way of
speech and/or a kind of utterance which is formed by means of conscious and
intentional selection, systematic patterning and implementation of linguistic
and extra-linguistic means with respect to the topic, situation, function,
author's intention and content of an utterance.
The Belles-Letters style (artistic,
aesthetic, in Slovak umeleckэ љtэl) is one of the language styles
which fulfils, in addition to its general informative function, a specific aesthetic
function.
The Literary Style is the style
of literary works implemented in all components of a literary work, i.e. on the
level of language, ideas, plot, etc. All these components are subordinated to
aesthetic norms. (Thus Literary style is an extra-linguistic category
while the language and belles-letters styles are language categories.) We can
recognize the style of a literary school, group or generation and also an
individual style of an author (i.e. idiolect). This means that on the
one hand we can name the so called individual styles and on the other
the inter-individual (functional) styles.
The object of lingo-stylistics is the study of the
nature, functions and structures of stylistic devices and expressive means on
the оnе hand, and the study of the functional styles, on the other. А
functional style of language is а system of interrelated language means which
serves а definite aim in communication. А functional style is thus to be
regarded as the product of а certain concrete task set by the sender of the
message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of а
language.
The literary standard of the English language,
like that of any other developed language, is not as homogeneous as it mау
seem. In fact the Standard English literary language in the course of its
development has fallen into several subsystems each of which has acquired its
own peculiarities which аге typical of the given functional style. The peculiar
choice of language means is primarily predetermined bу the aim of the
communication. Оnе set of language media stands in opposition to other sets of
language media with other aims, and these other sets have other choices and
arrangements of language means.
What we here call functional styles аге also
called registers оr discourses.the English literary standard we
distinguish the following major functional styles:
) The language of belles-Letters.
) The language of publicist literature.
) The language of newspapers.
) The language of official documents.functional
style mау bе characterized bу а number of distinctive features. Each functional
style is subdivided into а number of sub styles. These represent varieties of
the abstract invariant. Each variety has basic features common to all the
varieties of the given functional style and peculiar features typical of this
variety alone.
The belles-lettres functional
style has the following sub styles:
а) the language style of poetry;) the language
style of emotive prose;
с) the language style of drama.
The publicist functional
style comprises the following sub styles:
а) the language style of oratory;) the language
style of essays;
с) the language style of feature articles in
newspapers and journals.
The newspaper functional
style falls into
а) the language style of brief news items and
communiquйs;) the language style of newspaper headings;
с) the language style of notices and
advertisements.
The scientific prose functional
style also has three divisions:
а) the language style of humanitarian sciences;
Ь) the language style of «exact» sciences;
с) the language style of popular scientific
prose.
The official document functional
style can be divided into four varieties:
а) the language style of diplomatic documents;
) the language style of business documents;
с) the
language style of legal documents;) the language style of military
documents.classification presented here is by no means arbitrary. This
classification is not proof against criticism. Other schemes may possibly be
elaborated and highlighted by different approaches to the problem of functional
styles. Thus, for example, some linguists consider that newspaper articles (including
feature articles) should be classed under the functional style of newspaper
language, not under the language of publicist literature. Others insist on
including the language of everyday-life discourse into the system of functional
styles.. Budagov singles out only two main functional styles: the language of
science and that of emotive literature. [36, 79]analysing concrete texts, we
discover that the boundaries between functional styles sometimes becоme less
and less discernible. Thus, for instance, the signs of difference are sometimes
almost imperceptible, between poetry and emotive prose; between newspaper
functional style and publicist functional style; between а popular scientific
article and а scientific treatise; between an essay and а scientific article.
The
language style of poetry emotive prose drama
Of all
the functional styles of language, the most difficult to define is the belles-lettres
style. Franz Kafka defines this style as «organized violence done on
ordinary speech».works create their own world. Each is a unique entity. Just as
a painter uses paint to create a new image, a writer uses words to create a
text. An important thing to recognize about literary works is just how
carefully and consciously they are crafted. Words are the raw material of
literature and literary writers stretch them to their limits. [37, 94]. Crystal
said that the literary language is the art in making the unnatural appear
natural. For example, a playwright or novelist may write a dialogue which is
naturalistic - i. e. it employs colloquialism, dialect words and so on - but
this dialogue is very different from spontaneous speech. It will contain no
non-fluency features; it will probably be less repetitious and more dramatic
than ordinary speech. [38, 183]forms of literature make no attempt to appear
natural - in fact they deliberately surprise the readersґ expectations. They
might use familiar words in unfamiliar ways as e. e. cummings does, or they
might coin new words as Gerald Hopkins does. Perhaps we expect poets to use
deviant language, but prose writers like James Joyce do it too. The
belles-lettres style is a generic term for three sub styles in which the main
principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized.three
sub styles are:
1.
the language of poetry
2.
emotive prose
3.
the language of the drama
Each of these sub styles has certain common
features. First of all the common function comes which may be called
«aesthetical-cognitive». This is a double function which aims at the cognitive
process and, at the same time, calls for a feeling of pleasure. This pleasure
is caused not only by admiration of the selected language means and their
peculiar arrangement but also by the fact that the reader is led to form his
own conclusions. So the purpose of the belles-lettres style is to suggest a
possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see
the view point of the writer. Nothing gives more pleasure and satisfaction than
realizing that one has the ability to penetrate into the hidden tissue of
events, phenomena and human activity and to perceive the relation between
various seemingly unconnected facts brought together by the creative mind of
the writer.all this it follows, that the belles-lettres style must select a
system of language means which will secure the effect sought. The
belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which
are:
Ø genuine, not
trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic device
Ø the use of
words in contextual and very often in more that one dictionary meaning
Ø a vocabulary
which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the authorґs personal
evaluation of things or phenomena
Ø a peculiar
individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and
syntactical idiosyncrasy
Ø introduction
of the typical features of colloquial language.belles-lettres style is
individual in essence. Individuality in selecting language means and stylistic
devices is one of its most distinctive properties.
So, the first sub style we shall consider
is verse. Its first
differentiating property is its orderly form, which is based mainly on the
rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls
for syntactical and semantic peculiarities which also fall into a more or less
strict orderly arrangement.syntax and semantics comply with the restrictions
imposed by the rhythmic pattern, and the result is brevity of expression,
epigram-like utterances, and fresh unexpected imagery. Syntactically this
brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached
constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities.second is the sub style
of emotive prose has the same common features as have been
pointed out for the belles-lettres style in general, but all these features are
correlated differently in emotive prose. The imagery is no as rich as it is in
poetry, the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not as high as in
poetry, and the idiosyncrasy of the author is not so clearly discernible.form
meter and rhyme, what most of all distinguishes emotive prose form the poetic
style is the combination of the literary variant of the language, both in words
and syntax, with the colloquial variant. It would perhaps be more exact to
define this as a combination of the spoken and written varieties of the
language, inasmuch as there are always two forms of communication present -
monologue (the writer’s speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters).
It follows then that the colloquial language in
the belles-lettres style is not a pure and simple reproduction of what might be
the natural speech of living people. It has undergone changes introduced by the
writer. The colloquial speech has been made «literature-like.» This means that
only the most striking elements of what might have been a conversation in life
are made use of, and even these gave undergone some kind of transformation.
Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles as well. Thus we
find elements of the newspaper style in Sinclair Lewisґs «It Canґt Happen
Here», the official style in the business letters exchanged between two
characters in Galsworthyґs novel «The Man of Property», the style of scientific
prose in Croninґs «Citadel» where medical language is used.all these styles
under the influence of emotive prose undergo a kind of transformation. Passages
written in other styles may be viewed only as interpolation and not as
constituents of the style. Present day emotive prose is to a large extent
characterized by the breaking-up of traditional syntactical designs of the
preceding periods. Not only detached construction, but also fragmentation of
syntactical models, peculiar, unexpected ways of combining sentences, especially
the gap-sentence link and other modern syntactical patterns, are freely
introduced into present-day emotive prose. [39, 387]third is the language
of the drama. The stylization of colloquial language is one of the
features of plays which at different stages in the history of English drama has
manifested itself in different ways revealing, on the one hand, the general
trends of the literary language and, on the other, the personal idiosyncrasies
of the writer. Thus the language of plays is a stylized type of the spoken
variety of language. The analysis of the language texture of plays has shown
that the most characteristic feature here is to use the term of the theory of
information, redundancy of information caused by the necessity to amplify the utterance.
This is done for the sake of the audience.language of plays is entirely
dialogue. The authorґs speech is almost entirely excluded except for the
playwrightґs remark and stage directions. The language of the characters is in
no way the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language, although the
playwright seeks to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the
written language will allow. This variety of belles-lettres style has used the
norms of the literary language of the given period. So 16th century
drama is much different from 20th century drama. [40, 200]
So, resuming the theory on belles-lettres,
let us put the question right here:
What is belles-lettres?
Well the answer is definitely to be:
Literature written for its own sake, not purely
informative or factual. «Works of the imagination.» If the work is not meant
chiefly to inform, but rather to please the aesthetic sense, it’s probably
belles-lettres. It’s synonym is literary works.forms does it take? Chiefly
three: fiction (novels and short stories), poetry, and drama. Occasionally
prose essays of a very speculative or general nature can be considered
belles-lettres.also refer tales to the three mentioned forms of belles-letters
and the reasons are that tales are:
· short stories
- within each tale there is, though fairy or mystic or magic, a story with all
its characteristics (we are not to specify ‘story’ characteristics in our paper
as it is not the essence of our paper);
· any tale can
contain piece of poetry (there are plenty of tales we know with verses, poems);
· a tale can be
dramatic by content too.
· At least
nowadays all the tales are finally recorded, digitized and available in any
form a reader wishes.arguments are the main pushers for us to proceed our
research with the analyses of the tales in the forthcoming part of the paper.
2. Gender discourse in the tales of the
three languages
.1 A short excursus into
tales
english language gender
discourse
The question of gender in
literary texts has been approached by linguists in two different ways. The
first involves a comparison of the fiction created by male and female authors
and is typified by the search for «the female sentence» or a specifically female
style of writing. The second involves a study of the uses to which the
linguistic gender system of different languages has been put in literary works.
In the former, gender is seen as a cultural property of the author, in the
latter, a morphological property of the text. A third perspective on language
and gender in literary texts is provided by translators and translation
theorists. Translation theorists typically view a text as expressive of a
particular time and place as well as being expressed in a particular
language.are going to consider gender discourse in the context of fairy tales
of the three languages. The reason we have chosen English, Kazakh and Russian
fairy tales is that during the course of the studies in the University we have
been closely dealing with these languages. One more reason is that we think
that through the prism of comparison gender discourse in the three languages
will reveal and illustrate the uniqueness of language opportunities to
penetrate into the depth of human thought. Moreover, fairy tales are the
product of not only one person’s writing activity, but the accumulated
experience of history, culture and traditions of a nation, of people, of men
and women - so, this is how the choice of the material for the analyses and the
research topic get interwoven.have taken for the analyses the following works:
v in English -
English Folktales (edited by D. Keding and A. Douglas): «The Pottle of
Brains», «The Old Woman and her Pig», «The Farmer and the Cheese», «Jack
Turnip», «Lazy Jack» [41];
v in Russian - Михаил Евграфович
Салтыков-Щедрин «Недреманное око», «Дикий помещик», «Баран непомнящий»,
«Повесть о том, как один мужик двух генералов прокормил» [42];
v in Kazakh - «Красавица
Кункей», «Три сына бедняка», «Чудесный сад» [43].
Fairy tales uncover
various aspects of reality through fictitious characters and places. Initially,
fairy tales were an integral part of folk-lore, being constantly expanded and
changed in different cultures until the spread of written language.fact is that
in an oral form fairy tales were created by adults for adults, demonstrating
values and traditions of people, though later acquiring a more loving audience
in children. Although tales differed much due to social distinctions. Fairy
tales created for children of the upper-class reflected specific moral norms
and manners, while fairy tales of common people revealed a criticism of this
higher society and uncovered various social vices.male writers contributed to
the development of the fairy tale in the eighteenth century; this is especially
true in regard to Charles Perrault whose Mother Goose Tales acquired
unusual popularity among children and adults of various nations. Such
Perrault's tales as The Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella
and Puss in Boots are still popular nowadays. In the eighteenth century Histories,
or Tales of Times Past by Charles Perrault were published in English.
Cullinan and Galda consider that this collection of tales transformed adult fairy
tales into children's fairy tales that were admired by both boys and girls,
because early children's literature mainly dealt with biblical myths and oral
stories. [44, 172]now adults who have read so many readable materials, we can
presume that the best fairy tales are supposedly universal. It does not matter
when or why they were written. [45, 1] The main characteristic feature of these
literary fairy tales is that they conform to a linear structure, that is, the
end of the tale is the start. For instance, in the fairy tale Rapunzel
written by the Brothers Grimm the two principal characters Rapunzel and
the Prince manage to overcome many difficulties and start a new life. As
the Grimms put it, the Prince led her [Rapunzel] to his kingdom where he was joyfully
received, and they lived for a long time afterwards, happy and contented. [45,
54]1756 a French female writer Madame Le Prince de Beaumont produced a simple
literary variant of Beauty and the Beast, a fairy tale that was intended
for youngsters. Madame Beaumont also issued Magasin de Enfants, a
collection of literary fairy tales for children's education, which she primarily
used for girls to diversify her lessons with them. This book gave rise
to the idea that fairy tales were especially useful for children. However, some
people in the middle of the eighteenth century made constant attempts to oppose
the spread of the fairy tale in children's literature. In particular, the
protestant Samuel Goodrich under the assumed name Peter Parley pointed at the
negative impact of fairy tales on children, presenting various scientific data
to prove his viewpoint. To some extent, the attempts of Goodrich and his
followers restricted fairy tales, but with the emergence of Romanticism
children's fairy tales became more and more popular.the nineteenth century
children's stories began to bring much income, and the tales written by the
French salon writers appeared under the pseudonym Mother Goose. In addition,
German writers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm managed to publish their well-known
collection of fairy tales Childhood and Household Tales that contains
such great tales as Hansel and Gretel, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
and Rumpelstiltskin. It was in that period when fairy tales began to be
chiefly utilized for children's education and acquired a crucial place among
other genres of children's literature. As Jack Zipes puts it, the fairy tales
for children were sanitized and expurgated versions of the fairy tales for
adults, or they were new moralistic tales that were aimed at the domestication
of the imagination [46, 14]
Some considerations on
some characters in the tales referred below
Therefore, moral values
and notions of fairy tales were strongly controlled in nineteenth-century
literature; the authors of the fairy tale adhered to strict censorship and had
to reflect the ideals that were considered appropriate for that society. Some
of Andersen's fairy tales, such as The Princess on the Pea and The
Wild Swans, are borrowed from folk-lore, although other tales are first-hand
pieces, including The Little Mermaid, The Snow Queen, The Red Shoes and The
Ugly Duckling.the end of the nineteenth century Walter Crane produced his
illustrations to Cinderella, Beauty and the Beast, Puss in Boots and Sleeping
Beauty, and Alexander Afanasyev gathered many Russian tales. In fact, the
development of Russian fairy tales differs much from the development of the
fairy tale in Western cultures. While the fairy tale in France, Germany, Great
Britain and other European countries was closely connected with myths, fairy
tales in Russia were perceived as the real past of Russian people. As a result,
the fairy tale in Russian literature is usually divided into three principal
kinds: tales of animals and birds, supernatural fairy tales and daily
tales.Russian fairy tales differ from European tales, they also reflect the
impact of France and Germany on the plots and ways of expression. However,
Russian fairy tale writers made everything to decrease this influence, thinking
that the revival of [native] fairy tales would promote the triumph of the
Russian language over the French language, which had been adopted by
aristocracy. This is especially obvious in fairy tales written by Alexander
Pushkin who adheres to French literary traditions and the structure adopted by
Charles Perrault. Contrary to Western fairy tales, Russian fairy tales became a
part of children's literature much later due to the existing notion that fairy
tales resulted in nightmares, that is why, for a long time they were appropriate
only to adults. [47, 334]the twentieth century such Russian fairy tale writers
as Aleksey Tolstoy, Olga Larionovna, the Brothers Strugatsky, Valentina
Zhuravleva, Ivan Efremov and Evgennii Zamiatin rejected Western traditions and
advanced Russian fairy tales. In their turn, Western authors Orson Scott Card
and China Mieville borrowed some elements of Russian tales using them in their
own fairy tales. The twentieth century is also characterized by the formation
of different versions of early fairy tales, including film adaptations and
operas, especially Walt Disney's film version Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs and the ballet Cinderella by Sergei Prokofiev. Besides,
these popular fairy tales have a great impact on contemporary writers of the
fairy tale, such as Emma Donoghue, Delia Sherman, Robert Coover, Angela Carter,
Margaret Atwood and Tanith Lee. [48, 8-18]to other literary forms, the
development of the fairy tale was one of the most important inventions of
children's literature. The fairy tale, with its rather simple plot,
provides valuable lessons to children and inspires their interest in other
literary genres. It not only develops children's imagination, but also
gives them an opportunity to take part in the described events and understand
some aspects of reality; the true history of mankind is contained in fairy
stories, they make it possible to guess, if not to discover, its meaning.
Although the fairy tale Snow White has been exposed to different changes
since its initial creation and every variant of this story reflects certain
cultural traditions of various countries, the crucial role of the tale is
explained by its impact on the formation of children's identities.example, Snow
White reveals German culture and the essence of their times, but what is
more important is that this fairy tale deals with the inner world of a
personality rather than with specific events of reality. Despite the fact that
the beginning of the Grimms' Snow White is written in a realistic
manner, depicting a birth of a beautiful girl and her mother's death
afterwards, in whole the tale is unrealistic. For instance, Snow White's step
mother has an unusual mirror that can speak to her; the only question that the
Queen asks is Mirror, mirror upon the wall, who is the fairest of all? - and
the only answer that satisfies her is - «Thou, O! Queen, art the fairest of
all». [49, 280]Queen's soul is filthy, she is obsessed with her appearance and
needs a constant confirmation of her beauty, while Snow White is beautiful
inside. In this regard, the Brothers Grimm draw a parallel between inner and
outer beauty, implicitly revealing the connection of their fairy tale with
ancient myths. If a child follows the behavior of the Queen, he/she will
finally lose, but if a child acts, like Snow White, he/she will benefit.
Children's identities are shaped by their environment; however, through most of
man's history, a child's intellectual life apart from immediate experiences
within the family, depended on fairy tales.to Snow White, such fairy
tales as The Three Little Pigs, Rapunzel, The Goose Girl and Cinderella
reveal certain patterns of behavior and morality that boys or girls should
follow, if they want to succeed. Many fairy tales reflect gradual changes of
their characters, as they acquire experience in the process of narration,
teaching children to behave in a similar way. For instance, the Scarecrow from
the fairy tale The Wizard of Oz written by Frank Baum becomes wiser in
his search of his identity and avoids mistakes that he made at the beginning of
the story.fairy tale The Goose Girl by Brothers Grimm brings up the
issue of female independence, revealing the transformation of a princess into a
goose girl and her realization of her true self. The girl's change helps her to
understand many crucial things of life.
Such fairy tales are
especially important for children who have some inner conflicts and problems,
as these tales reveal certain ways to overcome their difficulties. The fairy
tale is created to reveal both good and bad sides of life, simultaneously
stressing the importance of struggle for a person. In fact, the development of
the fairy tale in literature reflects the attempts of adults to guide children
towards appropriate ways of behavior. For instance, such fairy tales as Little
Red Riding Hood warns children, especially little girls, of the dangers and
reveals the consequences of their disobedience.tales differ in their patterns
of appropriate behavior. In particular, the researcher claims that such
Perrault's fairy tales as Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, Sleeping
Beauty and Bluebeard embody the features that are appropriate for
young women, including patience, obedience, politeness, inner power and
kindness. The principal female characters of the mentioned fairy tales
possess these features and they finally benefit from their good behavior.,
other fairy tales of Perrault, such as Ricky of the Tuft, Hop o' My Thumb
and Puss in Boots, reveal the desirable male features, including
intelligence, good manners, education, devotion and strength. But these
particular features are gradually implemented into the fairy tale by various
writers who change the earlier versions of these tales. This is obvious on the
example of Little Red Riding Hood that in the interpretations of
Perrault and the Brothers Grimm differ much from the oral folk tale. In the
earlier version a little girl encounters with a werewolf (оборотень) and tells
him where she goes; the werewolf kills her grandmother and then makes a girl
eat her meat.tale of the Brothers Grimm resembles Perrault's tale, but they
introduce a woodcutter who saves the girl and the grandmother, giving the girl
an opportunity to act in a different way in future. In this regard, an earlier
version of the tale demonstrates people's fear of being killed by wild animals,
while Perrault's version symbolizes the relations between an innocent young
girl and a dangerous man who is presented in the image of the wolf.
The Brothers Grimm's
interpretation pays much attention to cultural traditions of their nation,
revealing women's dependence from men; neither the grandmother, nor the
girl is able to save themselves in the face of danger, while a man, a
woodcutter, helps these female characters. The same regards the Brothers
Grimm's tale Snow White, where the girl is first saved by the huntsman
and then by dwarfs, serving as their mother and performing various household
duties. Through these tales the Brothers Grimm manage to reflect their
ideals on social roles of men and women and to convey experience of the
previous generations in regard to various aspects of life.the other
hand, the Grimms considerably change various folk elements of their tales,
introducing their own morality and ways of expression. For instance, developing
their fairy tale Rapunzel, the Brothers Grimm follow some folk
traditions of earlier versions of this tale, making major stress on magical
elements rather than on folk elements.particular, the fairy tale Beauty and
the Beast deals with the magic that is closely connected with psychological
maturation of the principal female character. At the beginning the tale
presents an awful beast, but as the fairy tale progresses, the Beast appears to
reveal many human features, such as loneliness, kindness and care. When a
Beauty meets the Beast, she perceives him as 'terrifying', because she is
afraid of males; however, as she is changed from a girl into a woman, the Beast
also changes into a good-looking Prince.is clear that such an interpretation is
made by an adult, but not by a child who does not realize the complex subtext
of this fairy tale, but Beauty and the Beast is still one of the most
popular fairy tales of children's literature. The fact is that fairy tales have
a gradual impact on a child; although he/she may not understand all meanings of
the fairy tale at once, he/she starts to uncover its subtext and symbolism in
the process of maturation. Perhaps, it is this variety of profound meanings
that makes the fairy tale the most crucial genre of children's literature.
Comparison of tales in
different cultures
Although the development
of the fairy tale differs in various countries, reflecting the peculiarities of
certain cultures, many tales reveal common structures and motifs. For instance,
such fairy tales as The Three Little Pigs, Goldilocks and the Three Bear and
Sleeping Beauty demonstrate three protagonists or three Fates,
while in the tale Snow White the Queen makes three attempts to kill
her stepdaughter. However, in the Brother Grimm's fairy tale The Juniper
Tree that greatly resembles the tale Snow White a wicked stepmother
manages to kill her stepson from the first time, but the boy is revived by the
end of the tale, similar to Snow White.common feature of these tales is
the existence of supernatural helpers, such as a magical godmother in Cinderella
or dwarfs in Snow White. Cinderella is one of the most important
fairy tales that exists in various cultures; despite the fact that the
principal character has different names, such as Cendrillion (Italy), Yeh-hsien
(China), Catskin (England) and Aschenputtle (Germany), the plot and morality of
this fairy tale are similar. In general, there are more than three hundred
variants of Cinderella, including the versions written by Charles
Perrault and the Brothers Grimm. In all these different versions two
characters, Cinderella and the stepmother are opposed to each other, revealing the
struggle between good and evil.same opposition is shown in the tale Snow
White, where the stepmother is presented as a cruel woman, while Snow White
is a beautiful and kind girl, similar to Cinderella. Thus, the image of a
stepmother in fairy tales is negative, demonstrating social reality in regard
to families: the poor girl suffered it all patiently, and didn't dare complain
to her father, who would have scolded her, because he was completely under the
[stepmother's] sway. In Perrault's and the Brothers Grimm's versions Cinderella
is portrayed as a real beauty, because in the eighteenth-nineteenth
centuries outer beauty was associated with inner beauty., in some other
versions of Cinderella the principal female character is presented as an
ugly girl who is further changed into an attractive young woman, while her
stepsisters who are initially beautiful are transformed into freaks, with the
exception of Perrault's tale, where Cinderella forgives her stepsisters and
finds appropriate matches for them. In the Brothers Grimm's tale the
stepsisters of Cinderella are punished with blindness for the rest of their
lives.Perrault's version of the tale much stress is put on fancy dresses and
the image of the godmother, while in the Brothers Grimm's version Aschenputtel
there is no godmother; instead, there is a tree near the grave of
Cinderella's mother that helps the girl. Similarly, in Rashin-Coatie, the
Scottish variant of Cinderella, there is a red calf that gives aid to
the protagonist. Thus, Western culture implements the image of the fairy
godmother, while other cultures mainly deal with certain magical things that
possess great power.Perrault's variant of the tale Cinderella is given the
glass slippers to match her beautiful dress and when the Prince finds a lost
slipper, he announces to the sounds of trumpets that he would marry the girl
whose foot fit the slipper. But in the Chinese version of the tale and the
Brothers Grimm's variant the principal female character gets the gold shoes. In
general, shoes and boots are crucial elements of the fairy tale; for instance,
the cat in Puss in Boots wears boots that provide him with higher
position and the Queen of Snow White is given the red hot shoes that
kill her.the development of the fairy tale in children's literature, we can
suggests that fairy tales were created from the myths and folk stories and
acquired a literary form approximately in the seventeenth century. Although at
the beginning fairy tales were written for adults, gradually they began to
occupy one of the most important places in children's literature. It was in
France, where fairy tales were first exposed to these changes, followed by such
countries as Germany, Great Britain and America. In Russia, where fairy tales
were closely connected with country's history, they were used in children's
literature several centuries later, implicitly revealing the difference between
Western and Russian cultural traditions. Although Russian fairy tales reveal
certain influence of Western culture, they create their own reality,
introducing native elements, characters, settings and plots.to children's
emotionality, fairy tales allow children to solve their inner conflicts in the
ways depicted in the narration. Among the most famous fairy tale writers are
Charles Perrault, Hans Christian Andersen and the Brothers Grimm who combine
ancient mythical traditions with their own cultural traditions in their tales.
However, while the Brothers Grimm and Perrault worked with earlier folk tales,
Anderson wrote novel fairy tales, conforming to a conventional literary form.
In this regard, each fairy tale has a variety of versions that, despite their diversities,
reflect common plots and motifs. Some of them are Cinderella, Snow White,
Sleeping Beauty, The Three Little Pigs, Puss in Boots, Little Red Riding Hood and
The Princess on the Pea. Overall, all these fairy tales were developed
as the principal educational tool that adhered to serious censorship and
implemented the desirable patterns of children's behavior. In addition, fairy
tales written by Andersen and the Brothers Grimm reflect some principles of
Christian morality that were absent in folk tales and myths.
2.2 Comparative analyses of the tales in
Kazakh, English and Russian languages
So, as we have already stated above, the
following is the material for carrying out the comparative analyses: English
Folktales: «The Pottle of Brains», «The Old Woman and her Pig», «The Farmer and
the Cheeses», «Jack Turnip», «Lazy Jack»; М.Е. Салтыков-Щедрин «Недреманное око», «Дикий помещик», «Баран непомнящий», «Повесть о том, как один мужик двух генералов прокормил»; «Красавица
Кункей», «Три сына бедняка», «Чудесный сад». (The full versions of
the texts of the tales are available in Appendix 1, 2 and 3 accordingly to the
languages appearance in the paragraph).
Content opening
We find it reasonable first to open up the
content of the tales, so as to give a wholesome picture of the texts of the
tales to the people evaluating the work. For the convenience the description is
given in tables, as we consider that structured presentation of information
enables quicker and better comprehension of the materials; also it is easy to
find and grasp the necessary pieces of information while carrying out
comparison of the tales.
1. English Folktales «The Pottle of
Brains» [41, 20-25]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Jack’s,
Mother Jack, Henwife
|
Yong
woman, cow, chickens, neighbors, doctor, priest
|
Jack,
a young man existing on his Mother’s account, until she is fed up with his
idling. She sends him to a strange creature for a piece of advice on further
living - for a pottle of brains, to Henwife. The Henwife agrees to help on
condition that Jack solves the riddles. He goes to Henwife three times
failing to find out the right answers to her riddles, until he meets a young
woman, whom he marries and who helps him with the right answers at his fourth
visit to Henwife.
|
A
house, the top of the green hill, hut.
|
Jack
was told to get a «a pottle of brains», but he never knew what it meant.
Looking for a pottle of some thing, he lost the most precious person. In the
end he himself gets no brain but in the person of his wife - embodiment of
brains, wisdom with him but not still his own.
|
Table 2. English Folktales «The Old
Woman and her Pig» [41, 48-49]
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
An
Old Woman,
|
Pig,
dog, stick, water, ox, butcher, rope, rat, cat, cow
|
On a
casual sixpence the old woman buys a pig, which did not want to go through
the stile. For solving that, the old woman involved a dog, a stick, water, an
ox, a butcher, a rope, a rat, a cat, a cow to help her in succession. They
did help and she did get the pig home.
|
An
old cottage, market
|
Trying
to solve a tiny problem, the old woman had evoked a big chain of actions and
actors instead of doing it herself and at once.
|
3. English Folktales «The Farmer and
the Cheeses» [41, 18-19]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Farmer
|
People
in the market
|
A
farmer, cheese maker, on the way to the market stumbles and drops his goods.
Instead of picking them up, he gets angry with them and lets them roll to the
market on their own. Of course, coming to the market he finds no cheeses.
|
Market,
Nottingham, river Trent, hill, inn,
|
Cheeses
are cheeses, they can roll down as they are rounded. But! They are no
thinking creatures!
|
4. English Folktales «Jack Turnip» [41,
26]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Jack
Turnip
|
-
|
Jack
falls on the ice and thinks how ice might make him fall and then continues
his thoughts about who or what is stronger. He concludes that he is stronger,
when at that triumphant moment he falls again on the ice.
|
Winter
lane
|
His
wisdom is a fool’s wisdom!
|
5. English Folktales «Lazy Jack»
[41, 27-34]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
King,
queen, princess, Jack, Jack’s mother,
|
Servants,
artists, messengers
|
The
king and the Queen have a daughter, the Princess who never smiles or laughs.
That’s considered to be an illness as no one could make her laugh. At the
same time there is Jack who never ever does anything but sit the fireplace.
When his mother gets fed up, she sends him to a farmer to work as Jack was a
quite strong lad he worked hard and every day as worked out more and more the
grateful farmer paid him more and more until the payment counted a donkey.
Silly Jack carries it on his shoulder making the whole town laugh. When the
Princes see that, she bursts into laughter. So she gets cured and Jack
marries her and his Mother did not have to do anything but sit by the
fireplace.
|
Village,
palace, farm
|
Though
a rolling stone gathers no moss, but sometimes and very often - Fools have fortune
|
Table 6. Russian Folktales «Awake Eye» - «Недреманное око» [42]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Attorney,
folk, Agaphyia
|
Policemen
|
A
boy was with one eye awake and the other eye asleep was born. Eventually he
becomes an attorney who sees nothing as all bribe-takers and law-breakers
keep on the side where his eye is asleep - so the other veiled things are
seen to the eye that’s awake. A sleeping eye serves him bad fortune as he had
chosen a beautiful woman but married a woman like him - with different eyes,
who had been also selling stolen goods. They live together and getting old he
gets worse in seeing and hearing, on the way to senate, where he wanted to
find a job, the policeman - the only one - tells him the truth about his
physical deficiencies that made him go back home.
|
Small
settlement
|
God
sends a cursed cow short horns - even attorneys wife and son had such like eyes like
his, such people do need two sound ears or eyes or nose as they will all the
same be blind and deaf to the things that they do need or that bring no
profit but just troubles
|
7. Russian Folktales «An Uncouth
landowner» - «Дикий помещик» [42]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Landowner,
men - serving the land-owner (muzhiki), district police officer (ispravnik),
|
4
generals, the bear
|
A
landowner having all the material wealth could not find rest for his soul. So
he asks God to take all men (muzhiki) away; but God did not satisfy his pray,
He decided to help the men instead as the landowner, having become very
greedy, deprived them of everything as the landowner stays alone there was no
one to take care of him and he gets more and more savage until he becomes as
wild as an animal. His desire to prove everyone that he could live without
the men, brought many problems to the life in the district in the whole; so
his men were returned and the landowner was restored to the previous way of
life again.
|
Land-owner’s
house, his garden, the woods
|
Let
everyone look to himself, and no one will be lost (Dutch) - this is not about our hero,
as he loses himself completely; Each man must suffer for his own sin
(Chinese) - this best suited to him.
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Merino
ram, sheep, sheep-breeder,
|
Land-owner
|
A
merino ram has a weird dream, the meaning of which he did not understand. The
dream was beautiful and bothered the ram to such extent, that it was carrying
out his function no more - to create a merino-sheep flock. The landowner paid
big money and did not send it to slaughter; so once in the night the merino
seems to see something up in the skies, jerked and died of a mysterious
morbus.
|
Farm,
sheep-fold
|
There’s
a black sheep in every family. (American) - the ram saw itself free in his dream,
forgetting it was just a ram and no more. All other sheep in the flock did
not understand his worries and just laughed at it. Ignorance is the cause
of fear. (Roman) - the ram died in vain in ignorance, so for him
ignorance was even death.
|
9. Russian Folktales «A tale of one man
who fed two generals» - «Повесть о том, как один мужик двух генералов прокормил» [42]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Two
generals, a man - muzhik.
|
Cooks
|
The
author places two generals on an uninhabited island. The two were in their
pyjamas and had nothing more but a journal. They wanted to eat and searched
the island but found nothing but fruit high on the trees, birds flying alive,
rabbits and other animals that needed to be cooked. They had no idea of how
to treat all that to turn it to eatable food. Tired and hungry they could
think of nothing but food and nearly ate each other. One of the generals
remembered that they miss a man - muzhik, who ought to be somewhere over the
island too. So they find one. This muzhik takes good care of them, feeding
them with different meals. The generals lived happily since then but missed
home; so they made him bring them back home. Getting home, they thanked the
man by sending «a glass of vodka and a-five-copeck silver coin» (пятак) to have a feast.
|
Uninhabited
island, Petersburg, Podyacheskyi district
|
A
hungry man is an angry man - but our generals’ best thing to do was to make a muzhik work
for them; they have died if not that man; Gratitude is the heart’s memory
(French) - will they meet the same care for such gratitude?
|
Table 10. Kazakh folktales «Beauty Kunkey»
- «Красавица
Кункей» [43, 100-107]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
A
young man, vizier, Kunkey, rock carrying batyr, hear-all batyr, lake carrying
batyr, fast running batyr,
|
khan,
mother, an old man, an old woman, an ant, Kunkey’s father
|
A
young man brings a fallow-deer with golden horns to khan; the vizier, who
envies much, tells khan to send him for a silver-golden stand and then for a
golden tree - the young man manages all that: with the stand by his mother’
help and with the tree by an old man’s help. The plotter-Vizier tells to send
him after Beauty Kunkey, who lived right under the sun. on our hero’s way, he
meets rock carrying batyr, hear-all batyr, lake carrying batyr, fast running
batyr and an ant - the batyrs and ant, who help him to overcome the traps of
Kunkey’s father. Kunkey falls in love with the young man and turns his khan
into a wolf and turns Vizier into a fox, making the wolf chase the fox. So,
the young man and Kunkey stay together.
|
Palace,
steppe, cave
|
Curses
like chickens come home to roost - for the vizier, and Enough is as good as a feast
- for the young man.
|
Table 11. Kazakh folktales «Three sons of
the poor» - «Три сына бедняка» [43, 76-91]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Ashken,
Moshken, Zhumakeldi - three brothers,
|
The
father of the three brothers, three old women, two princesses, a sister of
giants, three khans, a witch
|
The
father of the three brothers, getting disappointed, sends them away from
home. On their way they 1) stop in the woods first night, where Ashken at
night kills a seven-headed monster-bird; 2) second night Moshken kills a
seven-headed dragon under the ground that had much gold and silver; 3) third
night Zhumakeldi kills 40 giants and cuts out each giant’s ear. None of them
told anything to each other. Coming to city they find out that khan is
looking for the batyr, who killed the 40 giants and seven-headed monsters. He
finally finds out who was it and offers his throne and daughter to marry, but
the youngest son gives that opportunity to the eldest brother. In the second
town they find out that there also was a monster - a snake, who every night
ate a girl. Zhumakeldi kills that monster too, thus saving khan’s daughter.
Zhumakeldi again refuses to marry and gives that opportunity to Moshken - the
second elder brother. Coming to the third town, Zhumakeldi again sees there
is a tragedy - three giants, who killed many young men, as khan wanted to
marry their beautiful sister but giants refused him, destroyed all khan’s
men. Zhumakeldi kills the giants and their sister marries him. But khan sends
a witch, who cunningly kills Zhumakeldi and brings his wife to khan.
Zhumakeldi’s brothers find out about the tragedy from the stars. They save
their brother, who kills the khan, the witch and became khan. He brings his
father and treasure from the dragon’s cave. And they all lived happily ever
after.
|
Aul,
palaces, woods, cemetery, a tomb, a sea
|
Alertness
and courage are life’s shield. (Filipino) Courage conquers all things; it even gives
strength to the body. (Roman) - though the father did not believe in his
sons, they reached the highest of what they could and did.
|
12. Kazakh folktales «Magic Garden» - «Чудесный сад» [43, 128-133]
Characters
|
Story
development
|
Locations
|
Morale
|
Main
|
Minor
|
|
|
|
Asan,
Khasen, the fourth apprentice
|
Asan’s
daughter, Khasen’s son, a wise man and his first three apprentices, birds
|
Asan
and Khasen lived nearby and when misfortune happened to Khasen, Asan accepted
him as a brother. Khasen finds a pot of gold in the field that had been given
by Asan and he wants Asan to tale it, but Asan denies. After long discussions
they decide to marry their children and give them the gold. But the
newly-married couple also refuses to take it; finally they go to a wise man.
The wise man first addresses to his apprentices and the first three answers
were not approved. The youngest apprentice offered to spend the gold for
buying seeds and create a garden for the poor. Everybody liked that idea and
the youngest apprentice went to the market; on his way he met a caravan
loaded with beautiful birds who were obviously suffering. The caravan leader
told those were birds were for khan’s kitchen and the apprentice pays twice
more to the caravan leader and sets the birds free. After a while he realizes
what he did and falls into despair but when he opens his eyes he sees those
birds planting the seeds and the trees immediately growing and covering with
leaves and fruits. So there appears a magic garden; and when the rich want to
enter try the fruits - they fall dead; and when the poor want to enter the
garden and eat fruits - they were welcomed. So that the place for all the
poor to feel happy.
|
Farm,
field, market, steppe.
|
A
good deed is never lost - golden words to finish the tale!
|
Now we will analyze gender discourse
reflected in the tales in English.
1. «The Pottle of Brains»
In the following diagram we offer comparison and
description of gender use in the tale.
Graph 1.
these tables we see that female gender characters
have more solid status in the family and, therefore, in the society. Though, we
know that women, for Jack’s period and place, were acclaimed as long as they
the source of warm, ready hot food, a nice shoulder to lean on and a house
keeper. Jack’s mother is the example of how women started to demand equality
between men and women - these are the veiled samples of how relations of
between the sexes were changing from generation to generation.about Henwife and
the young lady, we can state now, that these kind of women - witches or simply
women who turned out to (eventually) know more than men were considered to be
sorceress and were the subject of persecutions. We can state that the Henwife
was a witch or something - she was strange and she knew things women should not
know probably. By the next diagram we want to show the size genders activity,
therefore, usefulness and sufficiency as a personality: Jack’s figure is at
front as women, all the same, could not do without men mostly.
2.
. «The Old Woman and her Pig»
This tale is picture of what a woman becomes
after the life full of labor and cares.
This tale might seem funny and weird if not sad
and tear-provoking. We see a series of actions when the old woman is trying to
solve such a tiny problem, which actually is vitally important to her. The
actors of the process (a dog, a stick, water, an ox, a butcher, a rope, a rat,
a cat, a cow) represent the levels of authorities where old people usually
address to when having some problems that they cannot solve themselves. Those
problems might seem unimportant to those authorities but in reality, these
problems do mean much to the old people as to this old woman. Facing
indifference and desire to earn something even from the old woman, she keeps
going hoping to reach the goal and she does!
3. «The Farmer and the Cheeses» and «Jack
Turnip»,
These are the illustrations of men’s
self-reliance and extremely high self-confidence. These men were absolutely
sure they are right and the others (the cheeses and the ice).
4.
The cheeses that fell out from the pack embody
the dreams or desired plans of a man and they, dreams-cheeses, started to roll
away from the cheese-maker. His stubbornness exceeds his ignorance and
sometimes it is hard to distinguish when he is a reasonable person and when he
is …not! The same is with Jack Turnip as he quite seriously questions the
things a grown up person would never do. Ice, the sun, a cloud, the wind, a
mountain, a tree and Jack himself were the objects to be compared for having
more power than the previous one; moving from one object to another he was
becoming more and more confident about his view on this «issue».more common
feature is that they two remind of children - naпve and immediate that in the
end it all causes smiles to say - wise fools!
4. «Lazy Jack»
This tale is a good example of an honest fool!
Jack, in this tale, is also a lazy lad whose mother is as industrious as Jack
is a lazy-bone. He is also driven by his mother to get a job. Jack is a very
strong lad and seeing that work is no worse than idleness, he starts to work
hard. His devotion and honest work touches the farmer and the farmer pays each
time more and more. There is also a princess, a girl who never ever smiled.
Graph 5.
There are some opposite parallels between the
female characters; for example Jack’s mother and the princess: they both never
did something that is the mother never idled and princess never smiled and they
both get centered around Jack - just as Jack started to work the change in the
life of the both began.could also trace similarities about the farmer and Jack:
they worked hard (when worked!), they asked no extra questions and knew how to
be grateful. Men do understand each other without words very often.more thing
is classical exception - when two opposites: in gender and in character as well
as general worldview get attracted by each other. Some will say it’s a fate,
but we consider it to be concurrence of circumstances: the way Jack was
carrying the donkey over the bridge and that process was witnessed by the
princess, also that scene only made her laugh - all is the way how things come
out. In this situation it is a non-verbal correlation of the two sexes.
Now we will analyze gender discourse
reflected in the tales in Russian.
5. «Awake Eye» - «Недреманное око»
The tales by Saltykov-Shedrin are the literary
works containing historical trends, so it is very easy to follow the changes in
the social roles of genders in different periods. For example, under the aegis
of Empress Catherine the Great (XVIIIc), European culture was a dominant
influence among the Russian aristocracy, particularly in the years prior to the
destruction of the monarchy in the French Revolution. In the 19th and early
20th centuries, Western ideas and the beginnings of modernization spread
through the huge Russian empire. Political evolution, however, failed to keep
pace. And this tale is a vivid example for that. The males were privileged to
occupy state positions - governing positions, places in local authorities,
different officials. The fact of having queens on the head of the empire was
always discussed and accompanied by different legends, as for example, all
queens had favorite men (фавориты), who used to take the initiatives in their
hands, as women are such «fragile and indecisive creatures».
6.
are decisive and problem solving when at work but
quite at a loss when at home. The attorney could do nothing with his wife
though knowing she was also a law-breaker - because at home he is no attorney,
just a husband to a woman who rules at home.
6. «An Uncouth landowner» - «Дикий помещик»
This tale is pure description of a male. The
landowner was not at once uncouth - wild, living non-washed, eat cooked food;
he became that state of wildness on his own will, thinking that he is showing
endurance of his inner world, trying to prove everyone he can live without
«those stinky, improper ‘muzhiki’, who became quite ‘widespread’ in the
region». This is typical consideration of men upon the other people whom they
consider to be not equals; women would not consider that in the same way, at
least understanding that the help of ‘muzhiki’ is indispensable.
7.
7. «An oblivious ram» - «Баран непомнящий»
The ram is a male. The tale speaks of the cases
when a person forgets about his destination. What we know is that men are
vulnerable to different types of obsession. The «civilizing process» of
cultural modernization and secularization in Russia was also somewhat different
from early modern Western Europe. (Graph 8. - below)
Graph 8.
as it was related to and associated with the
development of capitalism, urbanization, and the emergence of the middle
classes, the «civilizing process» in Russia was belated and labeled as
«Westernization.»
8. «A tale of one man who fed two
generals» - «Повесть о том, как один мужик двух генералов прокормил»
Because of the peculiar strength of Russian
absolutism, new forms of socializing and etiquette were often introduced from
above, by the Imperial court, not as mere examples for more or less voluntary
imitation, but as arbitrary and compulsory prescriptions, to be carried out
under close administrative supervision, and with the utmost contempt and
disregard for individual preferences and tastes.is what we see in the tale. The
two generals were grown, brought up and taken care of as it was prescribed by
the higher authorities. As the result we see that the part of the brain,
responsible for the knowledge of surviving, became atrophied - they know
nothing of how to help to themselves. (Graph 9. - below)
Graph 9.
is a sort of continuity between Peter the Great’s
masquerades and compulsory shaving of the boyars and the Communist
party’s crusade against long hair, beards, miniskirts, wide or narrow pants,
and so on. Ideologically, these policies were quite opposed-in the first case,
this was compulsory Westernization, and in the second-anti-Westernization, but
the compulsory administrative methods and social-psychological consequences of
both policies were similar. Since it was introduced mainly through external and
repressive means, the civilizing process in Russia tended more to rigid
conformity and uniformity than to pluralism and diversity.
Now we will analyze gender discourse
reflected in the tales in Kazakh.
9. «Beauty Kunkey» - «Красавица
Кункей»
All the literary works - oral and written are the
representatives of Kazakh traditions, Kazakh wisdom, in general the Kazakh
worldview. Speaking about traditions and wisdom we do not necessarily mean only
positive sides, not at all. There are surely such things as vice, sin, fault
and so on, but there are always better people to overcome that entire negative.
(Graph 10 - below)
Graph 10.
Kazakh wealthier layer of population considered
being quite rightful to keep the lower layer down and the poor used to obey. In
this tale we see that in full size but one more thing is so called «Асар» - «All people
together» when the batyrs support the young man. The vizier, well aware of
impunity and khan’s support, planned to smash the young man and using him get
Kunkey. The young man, thinking that he was fulfilling the orders, did his best
and he brought Kunkey to Khan. But woman’s wisdom serves no good to vizier and
it is quite favorable towards the young man. Though the men have decided
everything for her - the last word is left for her.
10. «Three sons of the poor» - «Три сына
бедняка»
The tale has some traces of classical Russian
tales about three brothers. But the beginning is the trace of fear before new
and unfamiliar: when the father sees his sons greeting him - that’s like a
signal for him that that new and unfamiliar is already here and very close to
him. ‘No man - no problem’ and the father sends the sons away like getting rid
of a problem; why did the sons obey so easily - because it is a tradition to
obey to father.the Russian analogs, in the Kazakh version the elder brothers are
no mean or jealous. The men living on the steppes tried to stick to each other
rather than compete and demolish each other; sure enough the cases of vice and
sin also took place on the steppes of Kazakhstan, but friendship and mutual
help prevailed as many Kazakhs were united by «Асар» - «All people
together»!tale demonstrates intersexual relations: respect of young males to
older females and males, endless care to young males by older females;
concupiscent of old men to young beauties - the dreadful sin of all that drives
men to do bad things to reach their vile passions.title of the tale is
promising and raises different ideas about the content of the tale: people
expect to find some traits alike to familiar tales. But a reader finds and what
we found is quite different - magic goes hand in hand with real virtues and
common beliefs.
11. «Magic Garden» - «Чудесный сад»
The tale is a pleasant story to dwell upon. We
see people, who really respect and love each other, take care and try to
protect each other. Asan and Khasen represent the common people from the
steppes, who used to work hard to earn the piece of bread and finding a pot of
gold spoiled no spirit of the men. Instead, they decide to share it with their
children, in their turn, the children decide to let the wise solve the destiny
of the gold. When the gold is out of the hands of these people of holy
simplicity, another kind of people try to manage its fate.
A good deed is never lost - for the
boy, whose heart was as pure as a tear!are no innocent, no unideological tales,
just as they are no «natural» myths. Every tale is a manufactured object, and
it is the inherent bad faith of a tale to seem, or rather to pretend, to be a
fact. Similarly, such tales seem to be especially potent narrative forms of
rhetoric. Such tales «legitimate so effectively because it relates the
precarious reality constructions of empirical societies with ultimate reality.»
Considerations on the tales of the three
languages.
Tracing the tales, we can distinguish two stages
in our gender research: biological determinism and gender research proper.
There are facts which questioned the dependence of gender category on
biological peculiarities of the sexes.specific feature - biological determinism
- is the recognition of the fact that psychological, cultural, behavioral and
intellectual differences between men and women as well as peculiarities of
their speech behavior were determined by their biological sex. But such factors
as sex correlation, age, education and culture were are not sufficient as we
could notice in our analyses.our work we also researched peculiarities of
communication in various social strata and can conclude that existing gender
differences in language are determined by social and historical causes.’s
speech is characterized by a great number of deviations from standard language
due to their masculine type of behavior. We think that Individual speech code
developed under the influence of a number of factors, for instance social,
cultural, and economic and many others.gender peculiarities of dialogue
discourse, we paid attention, in the first place, to communicative behavior
strategy. We noticed that the male type of speech behavior is «competitive»,
and it assumes competitiveness, autonomy, striving for possession as we
demonstrated by the tales. The female strategy of communicative behavior
assumes interpersonal interaction, sociability and expression of feelings
(«cooperative» type). «Male» communication is less interlocutor-oriented; it is
aimed at expressing one’s own principles as in «Uncouth landowner».
«Female» communication is directed towards the
interlocutor, mutual understanding and dialogue. It is admitted in any culture
that woman’s social status is less significant in comparison with the man’s
because man’s activity in social sphere is viewed as more socially significant
as opposed to woman’s activity which is less productive as in «Uncouth
landowner», «Beauty Kunkey», «Lazy Jack».studies confirm the existence of
differences in men’s and women’s speech behavior. Gender-sensitive models of
speech behavior are not assigned by nature; they are «constructed» by society,
determined by institutions of social control and cultural traditions.assumption
of men and women being different or alike is incorrect. Each person regardless
of his/her sex assignment is an individual with equal opportunities. Various
character peculiarities of men and women are caused not by their biological
assignment to this or that sex. And these peculiarities (physiology and
spiritual state) are best reflected in the English words «sex» and «gender».see
that characters’ speech is directly related to communication. Thus,
considerable differences of men’s and women’s worldview influence
communication. Communication cannot be viewed disjointed from language as it is
through language and other sign systems that worldview and, accordingly, gender
peculiarities are expressed.our research, we view a communicative strategy as a
part of communicative behavior or communicative interaction, where a number of
verbal and non-verbal means are used for achieving a specific communicative
aim, communicants’ personalities and communication setting being taken into
account; as in «Pottle of brains» and «Lazy Jack» - mother positioning herself
in a martial pose to show how determined she is. So, communicative tactics
fulfill the function of the means of communicative strategy realization and
correlate with individual communicative intentions.can now single out two types
of influence: verbal and communicative. The key factors determining the
possibility and effectiveness of verbal influence are:
ü Linguistic -
the interpretive factor of variational reflection of reality appears in the
lexical sphere. It is based on the mechanisms of verbal influence on consciousness.
ü Extra-linguistic
- the factor of social demand for information with all its semiotic, psychic,
ethno-cultural, social, cognitive and other characteristics of a person’s life.
ü Semiotic - an
idea about the meaningful variety of linguistic expressions in accordance with
objectives, goals, match or mismatch of ideas about linguistic variants of
denoting an object or phenomenon, communicants’ understanding and correction of
choice.
ü Social -
selection and batching of information, correlation of negative and positive
details (for instance, praise of feasible elements of criticism, criticism of
positive assessment), knowledge and consideration of stereotypes and tales of
mass consciousness, authoritative statements.
ü Cognitive - a
person’s processing of information: inert perception, misinterpretation of
evidence, perception of false casual connections leading to inadequate
reflection of reality.
ü Psychological
- emotional verbal influence on the addressee: a) persuasion (logical
arguments) - reliance on consciousness, intellect; b) suggestion (emotional
arguments) - appeals to emotions and putting the addressee into the
psychological state necessary for the addresser’s aims. Communicative influence
assumes influence on the addressee’s knowledge (cognitive level), relations
(affective level) and intentions (connotative level) in the direction necessary
for the addresser.on the addressee’s consciousness assumes presence of the
subject and object of influence and represents an action aimed at someone or something
in order to achieve or infuse something.and analysis of communicative
strategies and tactics men’s and women’s speech behavior has shown that it is
rather difficult to speak about working out a single classification because
people’s communicative behavior is determined by a great number of factors. We
can distinguish «general» and «particular» strategies, classification of
particular strategies being rather complicated due to the variety and
instability of communicative situations described in the tales.the course of
studying gender differences in tales texts, communicative behavior strategies
were brought to the forefront. Social conditions being equal social and
professional status, age, communicative role etc.), men and women have
different strategies of speech behavior. Gender roles vary according to the
communicative situation and the speaker’s intention. Gender is a «floating»
parameter which influences a person’s communicative behavior.strategy of male
communicative behavior assumes competitiveness, autonomy, striving for
possession of control (competitive type). The female strategy of communicative
behavior assumes interpersonal interaction, sociability and expression of
feelings (cooperative type).
«Male» communication is less interlocutor-oriented;
it is aimed at expressing one’s own principles. «Female» communication is
directed towards the interlocutor, mutual understanding and dialogue.these, we
would argue, create a web of meaning, a socially constructed worldview that
historically has excluded or made secondary the experience of certain groups of
people. In addition, mass mediated messages offer the most contemporary,
powerful, technologically and rhetorically sophisticated strategies for shaping
cultural reality. The beauty, diet, and advertising industries are the most
obvious, best researched examples of contemporary, self-conscious myth-makers
who control cultural concepts (and acceptable images) of gender (of what it
takes aj (-=nd means to be male or female, masculine or feminine).us look at
the comparative table of female gender discourse in the three languages
represented in the tales.let’s see what the united analysis of the male
discourse of the tales mentioned above is.meet a very active male character who
is so occupied with his own problems and feelings that he doesn’t even notice
the woman who lives at his side and is selflessly devoted to him, taking good
care. This scheme is painfully well known, and the sexual roles are
traditional; the man is the hero and the woman is his humble servant, be she is
a mother or a lady. It is only the experience of an outbreak, which opens the
eyes of the hero and allows him to see the virtues of a mother or a girl.have
carried out studies in an experimental paradigm in order to quantify features of
women's and men's speech. This research is not intended to provide a cross
section of research. Rather, it presents a broad and in-depth sociolinguistic,
linguistic, and ethnographically oriented discourse analysis.reader can also
trace tendency to separate the gender and language field into two camps,
roughly conceived as the «dominance» approach and the «cultural» approach. The
«cultural» approach can be traced in the work also. But we want to warn that
such vision-separation - is unfortunate because, like most bipolar
representations, it belies the complexity of the issues and the subtlety of the
research. We hope that the analyses and arguments contained in this volume will
serve to obliterate this dichotomy.do not deny the existence of dominance relations
in general or the dominance of women by men in particular. Likewise,
recognizing that men dominate women in one culture does not preclude the
existence of patterns of communication that tend to typify women and men; as we
see from the tales patterns can be interchangeable.practical part is a better
understanding of the complex relationship between the cultural patterning of
linguistic behavior and that of gender relations. We tried to demonstrate that
«cultural» approach to gender refers to the proposal that males and females can
be thought of as belonging to two different cultural groups since they tend to
socialize in primarily sex-separate peer interaction.aspect of cultural
patterning that bears on gender and language is the recognition that gender is
only one of many cultural influences affecting linguistic behavior. Analyzing
the tales in the three languages we made an attempt toresearch provides an
in-depth introduction to research on gender and language that has been carried
out in the tradition that might be called ethnographically oriented discourse
analysis or interactional sociolin
Conclusion
study of language and gender has increasingly
become the study of discourse and gender.we could see during the research,
while phonological, lexical, and other kinds of linguistic analysis continue to
be influential, the interdisciplinary investigation of discourse-level
phenomena, always a robust area of language and gender scholarship, has become
the central approach of the field.also can conclude that there plenty of books,
articles, and dissertations in numerous disciplines examine the intersection
between discourse and gender from a variety of analytic perspectives. This
proliferation of research presents problems for any attempt at a comprehensive
overview, for although many of these studies are explicitly framed as drawing
on the insights of discourse analysis, their approaches are so different that
it is impossible to offer a unified treatment of discourse analysis as a tool
for the study of language and gender.can also state that there is no
well-defined approach to discourse that can be labeled «feminist discourse
analysis».work focused on studying male and female communicative behavior in
three languages - English, Russian and Kazakh - and research in realizing the
rich potential of meanings developed in this form of belles-lettres as tales.
We managed to prove that tales bear the
traces of belles-lettres: tales are also short stories as each tale has a
fairy or mystic or magic but story with all its characteristics; any tale can
contain piece of poetry (there are plenty of tales we know with verses, poems);
a tale can be dramatic by content too; and moreover, we now face such situation
when all the tales are recorded, digitized and available in any form a reader
wishes. We can also state that the signs of mythological and belles-lettres
experience are remained both in folklore and classical literature up to day.
The mythology is not of systematic and full character in comparison with that
of the ancient Greek or Rome or China. But it is possible to find out the
traces of Russian and Kazakh mythology in correspondent folklore samples.
We have carried out analyses of the tales from the three
languages stipulated in this research. The analysis was not only based on
functional and pragmatic approach to language study but also centered on modern
trends in cognitive linguistics, socio-cultural studies, cognitive,
psychological and a number of other factors.the analysis and resuming the
theoretical materials we can conclude that discourses regarding men and women
still differ today. This was exemplified in every tale’s consideration
textually and graphically. For example, women are perceived as being subject to
outside influences (to their detriment) - that they lack «agency», the power to
initiate actions in their own lives - they are largely victims of external
forces. Men, however, are seen as having power to choose, as being agents for
their own actions, so that men live to create a persona. The result (power
effects) of this type of discourse, which is common in many areas of men’s and
women’s image, is that we attempt to change environments for women.
Our work has explored the
relationship between gender and language through the analysis of discourse in
interaction. Some chapters compare the discourse of females and males; others
analyze interaction among females. All the analytic chapters both provide model
analysis of conversational interaction and make significant theoretical
contributions to the literature on gender and language. Of the many
methodological and theoretical approaches to this topic currently being
pursued, the one embodied in this collection can be thought of as ethnographically
oriented discourse analysis or, alternatively, interactional sociolinguistics.
The chapters provide context-sensitive microanalysis based on observation and
critical perception of the tales. The time is ripe for this approach, as gender
and language research nears the close of its second decade., this work can be
used as a kind of casebook for the field of interactional sociolinguistics
since it demonstrates how work in the field addresses a particular
sociolinguistic issue. The collection also sheds light on a central theoretical
and methodological problem: comprehension of oral discourse. As discourse
analysis has gained greater prominence, the complexity of comprehension has
received increasing attention.
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