The history of development the science of translation in the countries of studied language
Introduction
Studies as an academic discipline highlights the history of
translation and translation theory. Translation is the process of transferring
text from one language into another. And do we know everything about
translation? Do we know about history of translation study? About how the
theory of translation was developed and how it came to us?history of
translation - is an academic discipline designed to provide the necessary
information on how this art of sending information from one language to another
was evolved over time. When we discus history of translation we must think of
the theories and names that emerged at its different periods. Actually, each
era characterized by exact changes in translation history, but these differ
from one to one more. Translation played and plays an input role in the growth
of world culture. It is ordinary to think of culture as general and totally
separate. If we start to look at the impact of fictional translation, the
option of communication clear of anything so restricted by geographic part is
clear.
The authors which concerns in their works the theme of
my thesis are: I.A. Chistovich, Gorbovskii N.K., Semenec O.E., Panasev A.N.,
Komissarov V.N.,
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Population in Canada
this period, at the behest of the French king Francis
I explorer and traveler seafarer Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) is sent to the
eastern shores of North America to colonize new territories. In 1534 he was
being captured two Iroquois Indian tribe Stadacona (now Quebec). Indians -
House Agay and Taynyaoni - follow him to France. Cartier intends to teach them
the basics of the French language there, to be used in the future to travel as
interpreters dealing with the Indians. Indeed, in the next journey in 1535,
these Native American interpreters helped him in getting new and useful
information about life in New France.the XVII century French explorer
Samuel de Champlain in North America, founded Québec City in 1608, and continues to develop new lands and
expanding contacts with the local population. In 1610, he directs to the
Algonquin Indians also lived on the territory of present-day Canada, Etienne
Brule with a task to learn their language and act as an interpreter. Brule is
the first official translator in the country. In subsequent years, the
Champlain creates, so the whole institution of translators who had to
"live with the Indians and the Indians" to master all the subtleties
of culture of local tribes for their successful colonization [22, p.1515].the
period of French rule the translation in the languages of Indian
tribes gets fairly widespread: there are a group of court interpreters,
military, commercial, etc. the beginning of the XVIII century judicial and
military interpreters are necessary and have to communicate with the Dutch and
the British.the XVIII century, when it starts inning of New France by the
British, the French, opens a new stage in the modern history of translation in
Canada. Since 1710 and the fall of Port-Royal and the British capture of Acadia
(now Nova Scotia) the local French-speaking population forced to live under the
rule of the British government. The last run the country through regulatory
documents, writing in English and translates then into French. The central figure
of the Anglo-French translators becomes Paul Mascari, Huguenot, won the 1706
British citizenship 1710 and came to Canada. [23, p. 54-55].this period the
birth of Canadian bilingualism however, the translation in the official sphere
is too early to say exactly according to its established tradition in Mascarene
make texts governing documents directly in French. The official name is
"translation" the French version of the governmental document gets
only 6 February 1769, when a French version of a published document
shows a postscript: "Translated by order of His Excellency
François-Joseph Kuehne. SF. "Kuehne from 1768 was the official
translator of the Governor of the Province of Quebec and performed
administrative and editorial functions.
[24, p. 67].present translation activities in the official sphere begins only
after the whole French North America by the Treaty of Paris on February 10,
1763 goes to English in Quebec and settles civil government. Since 1764 there
begins to come out the first official bilingual organ - La Gazette de Quebec /
The Quebec Gazette. Articles in this newspaper are written mainly in English,
but are accompanied by a French translation. From this period, according to a
Canadian researcher Pierre Davio already there has been some distortion of the
French language. At the initial stage of the Anglo-French bilingual French
texts of official documents were excellent, although written in the vernacular.
Translation and editing of translated or compiled by the French official texts
carried emigrants old Canadian families. Later, when Kuehne, especially the
moment when he began to charge transfer competent enough in French to people
who have received an English education, the French language is beginning to
suffer. Kuehne himself does not always know how to properly relate the position
of the French legal documents and their English counterparts, which often led
to a complete nonsense in translation.
.3.1 Translation development in 20 centurythe XX
century translation activities in government continues to grow and strengthen.
In 1934 at the suggestion of Secretary of State Kaan created the Federal Bureau
of translations, designed to serve the entire federal administration. The role
of the public authority in the development of translation in Canada is
enormous. Chronology of events in the history of translation given in the book
of G. Delisle "Translation in Canada, 1534-1984," provides a picture
of the activities of this organization for over fifty years. [25, p. 65-120].is
the creation of local (provincial) Translation Bureau, the organization of
training courses and professional development of translators, the creation of
the study and systematization of terminology, recurrent publications on
Language and Terminology organization of scientific and practical conferences,
the introduction of new means of transfer, the study of issues of organization
translation work, their wages, objective way to evaluate the quality of
translations, the nature of relations between translators and their clients,
and much more. One of the key aspects of the Federal Bureau of translation
development and publication of the transfer and in the interests of the
translation. In 1995, he developed a French-English-Spanish dictionary Road
Transport and 1996 - "Guidelines for Editors," and in 1999 - CD-ROM
with a French-English vocabulary. [23, p. 378].merit of this part of the
country is the fact that the French language is officially recognized as a
second, equally important, the official language of Canada. In 1969, that
through there after the Act of Union declared official only the English
language in the country, accepted fact, it meant that the parliamentary debate,
where everyone chooses has the legal right to speak on any of the two languages
should be provided with translation, all legislative acts of government,
archives, records parliamentary hearings must be developed and published in two
languages, and later in two languages and legal proceedings underway. It
is hard to imagine what an enormous amount of translation involves the law,
which the army of translators to ensure its implementation! In 1997, Canada had
about 12,000 officially registered professional translators. Translation
activities evolved in this industry sector the country with all the characteristic
of this socio-economic phenomenon attributes.we should not assume that the
translational activity in Canada is actively conducted only in the formal
sector. The industrial character of translation activity in Canada is reset by
the fact that in Quebec - the largest by area and second in population highly
industrialized province in the country - the main language is French since
1977, when it adopted the Charter of the French language, it is the main
official language of the province. This means that the French language is not
only an administrative, but also all production activities. It is easy to
understand that in the English-speaking Quebecers environment need to take a
lot of effort in the field of translation, to ensure normal economic relations
with its neighbors.of the Charter made active complex and continuing process «
Fransizaton » the enterprises of Quebec, begun in 1971 « Fransizaton », i.e.
transition to the French language in all industrial area, could not, certainly,
with advantage without active participation of translators. On them,
apparently, the basic weight of this process as the most complex and
labour-consuming during « Fransizaton » manufactures was to process the
engineering specifications, being basically in English also has laid down, to
translate it on other language. It seemed, that the period of mass translation,
so important at the beginning, having prolonged by some time, inevitably will
pass, as objective «Fransizaton » was elimination of the old contradiction
existed in Quebec between English language - language of manufacture, and
French - language dialogue.in due course the demand for a translation service
for Quebec did not become less. On the contrary, only for ten years - with 1985
on 1995 - their number has increased more than in one and a half time (with
7450 up to 11 790 person) 1. Transition to the French language in сфе¬ре
manufacture has given a new impulse of translational activity: now for dialogue
with English-speaking neighbors from others Canadian provinces, as well as with
partners from the United States it was necessary to translate the documentation
on English language. Thus, translational activity was not reduced, has changed
only its orientation: from intraeconomic it has turned in external economic.
Translational activity of the enterprises English-speaking provinces Canada,
interested in attitudes with partners in Quebec has external character
also.such ways, Canada seems and feels similar to America. Their big, extensive
cities, sports stadiums, shops, and the same unique sense of liberty and
novelty found all through the U.S. But while speaking about translation, it is
a whole different world. The explanation is simple: in Canada there are two
official languages, English and French. Why does that make a difference? make
up in your mind for a second if Spanish were the major language of the six New
England states, plus New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware,
the District of Columbia, and both Virginia and West Virginia. Imagine other if
English remained the major language in other states. makes the U.S. relating to
as Spanish as Canada is French. If there were the case, do you think U.S.
businesses would go on to communicate only in English? Would restaurants in
Boston translate their menus for tourists from the southern and western states?
What concerning the central government? When one-quarter of the whole people
speaks a alternative language and is geographically concerted in a single
region, all have to be translated: administrative documents, public signs, quad
decisions, manufactured goods packaging, and promotion-the whole thing! A
Bilingual Country Full of Unilingual People unexpectedly few Canadians in fact
speak both English and French. In actuality, 7 of the 10 provinces are so
especially English; you possibly will go days or weeks exclusive of hearing a
word of French. Consider this: Canada’s easternmost region, Newfoundland and
Labrador, is house to in relation to half a million people. In the 2006 poll,
494,345 of them claimed to speak only English at home, versus 650 who claimed
to talk only French. About 4.7% of the province’s inhabitants supposed they
fluent in French. In Canada’s westernmost region, British Columbia, 3,341,285
scheduled English as their house language opposed to only 15,325 who listed
French. In fact, for every person who spoke French at home, more than 41 spoke
a nonofficial language such as Cantonese or Punjabi. About 5.2% of British
Columbians claimed to be simple in French. The picture is totally different in
Canada’s popular French province, Quebec. There, slightly more than 6 million
citizens out of a whole population of about 7.5 million speak French at home,
compared to a number of 745,000 who use English and 520,000 who speak a another
language. , like the speech of money, rule, and worldwide trade, is extensively
spoken by Quebecers, who have the improvement of living in close proximity to
English Canada and the U.S. In international Montreal, house of a vast migrant
population, many citizens are in fact trilingual; there are speaking
Portuguese, Chinese, or other languages at home, and English and French in
public. Above four million Quebec citizens don’t speak English at all. In
Quebec, 95.3% of people are national French speakers and two-thirds unilingual.
Native English stand for less than 1.5% of the whole population and in fact
outnumbered the third language groups, stand for 2.8% of the inhabitants. The
outstanding 0.4% claim English and French like mother tongues. In general, only
18% Canadians fluent in English and French, there are francophone Land of
Translation These demographic realities made Canada an universal head in
translation. it is only 0.5% of the world population, occupies completely 10%
of the worldwide translation advertise. The major manager of translators is the
national government. Its Translation government department has 1,200 paid
translators, interpreters, terminologists, and localization specialists. Not
simply act these professional translate reams of documents, typically from
English into French, they also provide a collection of another language
services, such as Termium, the Canadian free trilingual (English, French,
Spanish) terminology databank cover almost areas of all human doings.
Translation Bureau is a regular source of work for hundreds of freelancers too.
The local government also interpret, but to extensively changeable extents.
Only one region New Brunswick officially bilingual a following choice then
well-established in the foundation. It at the present has a legal compulsion to
translate all it does for the advantage of its one-third French-speaking
inhabitants. Manitoba also should translate all laws into French and offer
guarantee of the levels of French-language teaching according to a 1985 Supreme
Court decision.most full of people province, Ontario, while non-officially
bilingual, makes general use of translation. French Language Services Act
requires it to offer government services in French in 25 elected areas
(non-urban areas where francophone’s stand for at least 10% of the inhabitants
and town centers with at slightest 5,000 francophone’s).Ontario there are about
500,000 native French speakers out of a whole population about 12 million,
mainly clustered in the central of Ottawa or close to the Quebec edge. Quebec
is the only region is formally unilingual (unilingual French). Its bond of the
French Language, planned as a bulwark next to the violation of English,
requires businesses to control in French and deal by means of the French
government, and requires non Canadian populace (immigrants from the U.S.) to
propel children to French-language schools. The description doesn’t, though, be
relevant to the bench or to personal nation in their confidential transactions
with the government. Means for Translators the most obvious difference among
the translation business in the U.S. and Canada is the chance for paid
employment. In addition to the thousands on the Canadian payroll government,
thousands and more work for personal employers. large banks as Royal Bank or
the Bank of Montreal have extensive in departments of house translation.
Translators labor for chartered accountancies, store chains, grocery, law
firms, big retailer’s airlines, telecoms, and many other. Actually, students
graduating programs of translation are three times more likely to establish
careers in salaried positions than as freelancers. pays enormous dividends in
conditions of specialized development. Many adolescent translators get every
day response on their work from older editors (revisers in Canada), who also
translators. These continuing relations boost their self-assurance and the
excellence of work. According to studies, paid translators in Canada receive
more on standard than self-employed translators, and amongst freelance translators,
those who work first as paid translators earn more on standard than persons who
did not. Dissimilarity-of exacting profit to freelancers-is the widespread need
for translation in Canada. Since everyone who do business in the state is a
possible client, nearly all freelancers can farm business associates and direct
customers among people in their families and public. it is easier for them to
call possible customers or grows their customers by presence local commerce
function. Most of freelancers didn’t work for agency. There are probable 15,000
translators, terminologists, interpreters, and narrow action specialist in
Canada. What It Means for Translation Agencies an arresting dissimilarity among
Canadian translation agencies is their use of translators in-house? When each
day brings certain work in a solitary language couple, it is more gainful and
better for superiority manages to include an in-house team. The Canadian
translation market is grown-up and has a lot of confidence buyers who wait for,
demand, and recognizes lofty excellence. Subpar work is not tolerated. Even
“suitable” superiority labor is a difficult advertises while customers wait for
exceptional. Organizations There is no solitary association of translators in
Canada like ATA. A state organization exists for agencies and language schools
like AILIA. It is a tone for the business benefit of the Canadian language
business. A subsequent state body, the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and
Interpreters Council (CTTIC), is a confederation of nine regional and
protective organizations. One of CTTIC’s major actions has been to put into
practice normal guarantee events, in accord with its purpose to offer
consistent principles for the occupation and to make sure the capability of the
members of the organizations it represent. CTTIC handle translator guarantee in
all parts of the state except Quebec. It has also lately conventional
administration backing to get better professional preparation for translators
athwart the country. In adding to AILIA and CTTIC, translators have entity
associations in each region. These relations are comparable to ATA, but devoid
of commercial members. They grip normal conference and offer education
opportunities.
.
4. percentage of speaking languages in Canada
Quebec organization, the Ordre des traducteurs,
terminologies
et interprètes agréés du Québec (OTTIAQ), is single in that it is a
predictable specialized sort whose main assignment is to defend the public
alongside bad translations. It is alike in numerous ways to relations of
registered nurses or chartered accountants or engineers. There are the right to
examine a translator’s professional perform and can arrange a translator to get
corrective preparation if it deems this essential. Only specialized translators
might fit in to OTTIAQ, and only OTTIAQ members may call ourselves specialized.
There is no qualifications examination for each se, but relatively an accurate
procedure planned to distinguish proven skill and knowledge. To be an OTTIAQ
associate, you have to have a academia degree in translation and, depending on
how many years of labor experience you have, present a mentorship below the
direction of a specialized translator or propose a corpus of translations for assessment
by a commission. If you don’t have a bachelor degree, you may also ask for
certification by proving that you worked intended for five years or more as a
full-time translator and through submitting a quantity of translations. All
told, there are more than 2,000 members of OTTIAQ.
2.4 Translation studies development in USA
comparison I would like to consider the development of
translation study in USA. Everyone knows that USA its international country and
there are so many different nationalities. So let’s consider how the
translation study was developed, how people become to translation., despite of
centuries-old history, modern translation study was generated as independent
scientific discipline only in second half XX centuries to that in many respects
were assisted with expansion of the international contacts in all areas of
human dialogue that has in turn caused a sharp increase of demand, both for
translations, and in translators, became powerful spur and in growth of
theoretical researches of translational activity. It is necessary to note
especially such version of translation as synchronous which has appeared only
in XX century, as well as machine translation, which occurrence became possible
owing to progress of cybernetics. In second half XX century scientific
publications on problems of the theory and practice of translation are so
numerous, that hardly gives in to a review and so diverse, that classifications
quite often simply do not give in. second half XX centuries prompt progress of
linguistics is marked: there are new linguistic disciplines and areas of research:
cognitive linguistics, psycholinguists, sociolinguistics, biolinguistics,
linguistics of the text, the theory of speech certificates, neyrolinguists.
‘The Linguistics has turned to original macrolinguistics '. In sight
linguistics have got also problems of translation. The comparative analysis of
several translations of the same texts can be considered as natural experiment
on comparison of language and speech units in two or several languages in
actual certificates interlingual communications. Studying of translations
allows detecting in each of compared languages important features which,
however, by monolingual comparisons often remain not revealed. In this case
translation represents itself as a litmus piece of paper, specifying on basic
differences between language and speech units of multiple languages. Among the
subjective factors which have rendered essential influence on progress of the
linguistic concept of translation, we shall note following. it was already
spoken, in second half XX century there is a sharp indispensability in
interlingual dialogue consequently and demand for mass preparation of
professional translators. At linguistic faculties of universities and colleges
numerous translational schools and branches were created, both philologists and
linguists alongside with translators-experts have appeared in a role of
teachers of translation. And if by comparison of translations of scientists
went from translation to revealing specific features of this or that language,
that, having appeared in roles of teachers of a rate of the theory and practice
of translation, scientists went from specific features of compared languages to
the translation text.linguistic orientation of translational concepts in XX
century is connected also by that language is considered as a basis of national
culture, thinking, and attitude.with linguistic concepts of translation others
develop also. , the known American theorist of translation Eu.Nida allocates
four basic approaches to translation: philological, linguistic, communicative
and social semantic.philological approach to translation is based on a
principle of parity between the original and translation, i.e. in the center of
attention of theorists and experts of translation there are problems of
adequacy and equivalence. This direction uses basically methods and
achievements of linguistics of the text. At the linguistic approach the
translator always deals with two languages, thus the basic attention is given
not to conventional attitudes between the original text and Translation, and
substantial. Nida considers that the big contribution to progress of the
linguistic approach was brought with many philosophical and psychological
works.a basis of the communicative approach to translation the theory of the
communications lays. Characterizing this approach, Eu.Nida speaks that on
progress of this approach dramatic effect was rendered with sociological works
of Labov, Haimz and Gumnerc.Social semiotic approach concentrates the attention
on social aspects of interoperability between various sign systems in actual
certificates of the verbal communications. Already in antiquity the term '
translation ' is used in two values: for a designation of translation process
and for a designation of result of translation, i.e. the text of translation.XX
century the important seat in theoretical translation study borrows the
analysis of the translation process, cogitative operations of the translator,
its strategy and techniques. Such operations are inaccessible to direct
supervision, indirect methods of studying of translational process therefore
are developed the method of computer modelling, in particular, is used, as well
as various psychological experiments are spent. The leading tendency of
translation in the Europe and in the USA during all XX century became
translation mastering, natural, semantic, i.e. translation should be read
through ' easily ', to make impression of original work, translation literal
breaks reader's ' horizon of expectation '. American largest theorist of translation
already mentioned above Eugene Albert Nida, follower Martin Luther,
consistently proclaims a priority of content in relation to the form.huge
impact on the development of linguistic theory of translation, not only in the
U.S. but around the world has had a distinguished American linguist Eu. Nida.
Eugene Albert Nida was engaged in many languages, both classical and modern,
has published a number of important works on the syntax and semantics. He
became interested in the problems of translation because of its many years of
activity in the American Bible Society where he served as Executive Secretary
and scientific consultant of the Department of translations, which were created
under the direction of translations of the Bible in 200 languages and
seventy-five countries. on the experience of the work of Eugene found written a
number of books and articles, which dealt with many of the important aspects of
the translation work. The most important role in the development of linguistic
translation studies has played his book "To translate science",
published in 1964. The book deals with the problems of the Bible, as well as a
number of organizational issues related to the selection of the team of
translators and consultants interpretation of "vague" places in the
Bible, the special requirements for the piety of an interpreter, the need for
him to receive "divine blessing" of his work, etc. However, most of
the book contains a review of the fundamental aspects of the theory of
translation, far beyond the specifics of the Bible.work of Eu. Nida- this is
the first serious attempt to develop a proper linguistic approach to
translation issues. Back in 1959, in the article "Principles of
translation as an example of the Bible" Eu.Nida clearly postulated that
the bases of the translation are the main characteristics of language systems,
namely:
) the systematic linguistic signs
) the arbitrariness of the sign in relation to the
called subject,
) the arbitrary division of reality language and
speech marks,
) the difference in how different languages organize
signs into meaningful expressions. [26, p. 54].
alone shows that the main problem lies in the
translation of the language semantics. This idea has received all-round development
in the book "To translate the science."the content of the reporting
labor Eu. Nida is divided into three unequal parts. The first two chapters are
devoted to formulation of the problem and a brief review of the history of
translation of concepts in the "western world". In the next four
chapters that are purely linguistic in nature, analyzes various aspects of the
matter. And finally, the last six chapters are reserved indiscriminately proper
translation problems, both theoretical and organizational. These issues are
grouped under the heading: "The role of the translator",
"Principles of conformity", "types of correspondences and
differences", "Technology changes," "The translation"
and "Machine Translation".on semantics, the scope and content are central
to the book. The linguistic approach to the content of the original text, which
should be reproduced in the translation, it allows you to refine the concept
and get a set of semantic components that can be compared to the original and
in translation, and to draw conclusions about the degree of equivalence. Such
components are considered by Eugene and found in each of the three types of
values of linguistic units: linguistic, referential and emotional. [27, p.
125].the specific nature of the translation on the study which it was based, on
translation School Eu. Nida has played an important role in the overall
formation of the linguistic theory of translation. It is anticipated the
development of many branches of modern translation studies, especially research
in semantics and pragmatics of translation. Of course the work of Eu.Nida and
his followers do not exhaust the contribution to the development of the U.S.
translators of translation science. American linguists published a number of
other studies have not created such a large scientific school, but contain
interesting data and concepts on certain aspects of translation. We have
already mentioned some of the work from the collection "On
Translation". Except it came out in the U.S. a few collections of works of
translation, of which the most famous was a collection edited by R. Brislina,
which along with the American authors participated and well-known European
translators Seleskovich D. and B. Vilss.
American translation studies in the 80-ies of XX centuryTranslation
Studies 80s is characterized increasingly broad approach to translation issues.
If in the previous period, many works were carried out in a kind of theoretical
isolation, without taking into account the experience of other countries
translators (primarily European), now translators U.S. is increasingly based on
the works of foreign authors (with the exception of works of Russian scientists
tend to obscure the ocean) shall enter into a discussion with them, give an
estimate of their theories. The most serious work of beginning this period can
be considered the book S. Bassnett-Makgayr "Translation Studies".main
attention of the researcher is paid to problems of a literary translation.
Considering a big complex of theoretical and practical problems of translation,
the researcher widely uses works of other translators, agreeing with them or
entering discussion. For example, after R. Yakobson Bassnett-Makgayr allocates
three types of translation: rephrasing, actually translation and transmutation.
Describing procedure of translational activity, in the key provisions
Bassnett-Makgayr accepts Eu.Nida's concept, supplementing it with the detailed
description of actions of the translator at a choice of a variant of
translation. On the contrary, in treatment of translational equivalence the
researcher disperses from the concept of dynamic translation of Nida, thus
positively estimates classification of types of the equivalence, offered by
A.Popovic. in Anglo-American theory of translation interest to "alienating"
translation, the translation, urged to reveal a strangeness of a form, syntax -
figurative thinking - the translated text amplifies. Translation is considered
as a way and means to enter the reader into the world alien to it. Such
installation is connected first of all with the German tradition of
translational thought - with Goethe, Shleyermakher, Gelderlin, George,
Benjamin's names. [28, p. 50-63].great interest causes recently at modern
translators become in many respects Walter Benjamin's classical essay
"Task of the translator" where as one of requirements of
"good" translation the principle of exact copying of syntax of
original work is declared. Benjamin recognizes that translation is intended
actually not for the "ordinary" reader, the purpose of translation
consists in revealing relationship of languages, their ratio among themselves.
If for Nida "spirit" of work consists that is, that, according to
Benjamin, it is covered in syntactic structure, i.e. in shape. Today's
researchers of theory of translation are involved by an originality and
dissimilarity of foreign language and thinking that, certainly, is reflected
and in syntactic level. Modern researchers more than ever, are anxious with the
relations the author - the translator - the reader, understanding and
preservation of an individual originality of each of participants of this quite
often difficult communicative chain. Among the most influential researchers who
polemize today with the concept and practice of "natural", "semantic"
translation, it is necessary to call J. Stajner, L.Venuti, D. Robinson.
Recognizing all dissimilarity of the approaches offered by these authors, it is
possible to notice that all of them challenge the status and tasks of the
translator in the modern world challenge the idea which has developed by
eyelids of the translator as about transparent glass between cultures that the
translator acts as the translator nothing introducing "from himself"
that each translator "suppresses" himself in translation. Venuti and
Stajner accuse natural translation of a cultural narcissism, that translation
of this sort is somewhat useless as in the center of attention of such
translation - not foreign culture, not others originality, and own idea of what
has to be "foreign" culture. D. Robinson polemizes both with
alienating, and with mastering translation. Robinson notes that in the field of
theory of translation the unsoluble gap between the theory and translation
practice is observed. Robinson suggests considering the translator as the
personality creative, conceiving, i.e. to recognize that any translator,
carrying out any translation, introduces - he wants it or not - in work
something and from itself (himself).
.5 Translation studies development in England
V century AD the population of Britain was Celtic.
Despite five-century Roman occupation (lasting from I to the V century AD), the
Romanization of the British Isles in a little considerable degree didn't occur.
From V century migration to Britain of the German tribes (English, saxophones
and yuts), substantially pressed Celts begins. Though the first penetration of
Christianity on this territory refer to the II century, the original
Christianization of the country is dated the end of the VI century when father
Grigory I sent to Britain mission from forty monks led by the well-known
Augustine who has become the first archbishop Canterbury and based first
monastery.about the beginning translational (and literary) activity in England,
mention usually a name of monk Kedmon (VII century), shifting poetically in Old
English language some plots of the Scriptus. A bit later the largest author of
that era of Bede (672(673) - 735), written in Latin "Church history of the
english people" and some compositions, made an attempt to translate the
Gospel from John, but because of death didn't manage to finish it (translation
didn't remain). In the VIII century poetic retellings of separate bible books,
processing of church anthems, and also a free translation of the Latin poem
about a Phoenix, attributed to poet Kunevulf were created. But original
blossoming of Old English translation belongs to the end of the IX century and
is connected with activity of king Alfred (849 - the beginning of the 900th).
By the time of its accession to the throne the situation in the country was the
extremely adverse. Continuous invasions of Danes led to decline and destruction
of many monasteries - the centers of medieval culture. Strongly level of the
education identified during that time with knowledge of Latin went down.
According to Alfred, by the beginning of its board it was difficult to find the
person capable at least to translate the letter from Latin of English. On the
other hand, the king well realized that the knowledge best of all extends in
the country when it is stated in language of people, it occupying. From there
was a program of translational activity: "To translate in language which
all of us understand, some books which are most necessary for all people"
[29, p. 54].
performance of this task Alfred collected round
himself the scientific circle which members became the bishop of Wales Asser -
future biographer of the king, bishop Worcester Verfurt who has become
subsequently the archbishop to Canterbury, Pleglmund and other persons. Alfred
also wrote the letter to France to the archbishop Rheims in which reported
about a lack of educated people of own country; in reply the archbishop sent it
scientist Grimbold.In general it is possible to assume that the idea of creation
of the circle mentioned above was to some extent cast to the English monarch by
the similar circle existing almost by century earlier at court of Charles the
Great. However the last was a stronghold of Latin education whereas in the
center of attention of Alfred was educationally - translational activity in the
native language.the king, though was trained in Latin, didn't get a systematic
school education, the question of extent of personal participation of the
English monarch in transfers executed by members of a circle can't be
considered solved up to the end. However Alfred's most important role as
inspirer and the organizer of the grandiose work which didn't have analogs in
Europe of that time, remains indisputable. The following works were translated
)"History against pagans" bishop Orozy,
written in the V century. The author inspired by some ideas of Augustine,
created work in which sought to justify Christianity from charges that the
Roman Empire through his fault fell. Orozy's book was in the middle Ages very
popular and authority that probably and determined a choice by her Alfred as a
peculiar textbook of history for compatriots. In translation there are a lot of
omissions and changes; seven books of the original were consolidated to six. Besides,
data on those countries in which it is widespread "Teutonic" (i.e.
German) language are added, and the story of two travelers who have told Alfred
about the scene is included.
) "Church history of the people" mentioned
above Troubles Venerable. Here already freedom in relation to the original
gives way to aspiration as it is possible to retell more precisely its matter,
bringing sometimes to literalism.
) "About a consolation philosophy" Boetion
(VI century). This work "last Roman" wrote in a dungeon waiting for
execution. Boetsy's book was respected huge respect in the middle Ages, and in
her author saw the Christian martyr who was injured for belief. As the text is
very difficult for understanding, Alfred as report sources asked in the
beginning one of the associates - Bishop Asser to explain him the original, and
already then shifted it in English. The address with the original rather free:
its structure changes, many places are excluded, Christian color whenever
possible amplifies. Some hints and the hints not familiar to contemporaries of
Alfred are replaced with clear examples for his compatriots.Boetsy's style the
combination of prosaic and poetic statements is characteristic. Two variants of
translation one of which is entirely executed by prose remained, and in the
second attempt to apply characteristic for Old English an alliterating verse is
made.
) "Duties of the pastor" father Grigory I
(VI century). This translation more carefully and strictly follows the
original, than all the others and though in it also enough paraphrases often
meet, it isn't necessary to speak about a liberty. The choice of the called
work representing something like the textbook for clergy probably spoke not
only its general meaning for medieval culture, but also a special role of the
author in a Christianization of England: at it the group of monks-benedicts led
by Augustine for the organization of church life in the south of the country
was sent. As in Gregory’s I work it is spoken about what ideal of the Christian
priest has to be, Alfred considered necessary to extend its translation as it
is possible more widely among English clergy and dispatched copies of the last
to all bishops. In the preface the king speaks about the happy past of England,
opposing former prosperity "in war and sciences" to the sad present:
before foreigners came here to look for wisdom, because of decline of education
it is necessary to go in its searches abroad. Nevertheless Alfred considers
necessary to note undoubted progress in the education development, observed in
years of its board. Urging church hierarchs to be released from word affairs
and to be given to comprehension of knowledge, the king states a wish that all
freeborn young people learned to read well in the native language and those who
will study Latin, were appointed to higher posts.
) "Dialogues" of the same author (т. е.
Grigory I), on a content representing conversations of the daddy with the
friend about a life and acts of Italian. This book became a source for set of
hagiographical compositions of the Middle Ages and also enjoyed the big
popularity, than and its choice was defined.of fragments from compositions of
Avgustine "Monologue" and « About vision of the God » are attributed
to Al'fried also. Besides it by tradition consider sometimes and the translator
of the book of Psalmov David and even the Bible. However the precise
information on these translations it was not kept.death of king Alfred
translational activity in England proceeded, though with smaller intensity. In
particular, the Gospel from Matfey was translated and glosses (attributing of
the corresponding English equivalents over each word of the Latin text) other
three Gospel are made. There were also transfers of medieval ekzegetic and
didactic literature. About methods which adhered Alfred and its associates by
transfer of latin originals, it is spoken and in the forewords left by them.
So, in the foreword to « Duties of the pastor » it is informed, that the
English version passes the original sometimes word for word, sometimes -
according to sense; in the foreword to « to the Consolation philosophy » - that
king Alfred, being the translator of the named work, translated it at times a
word behind a word, at times sense behind sense so neatly and clearly, however was
able.of huge volume of work performed under its management, the English monarch
well realized, that its successors should make much more. In the foreword to
translation of "Monologue" of Avgustin, where the translator
assimilates to the builder who has gone the big wood to prepare a necessary
material and to deliver therefrom all necessary, it is spoken: « But I did not
intend at all to bring from a wood everything even if and was able to do it. In
each tree I have seen something useful; and consequently I advise any, having
such possibility and possessing necessary number of vehicles, to direct the way
to a wood where I have prepared logs. Let it will add to them new, will load
with them the vehicles and will create what I have not made, - will construct set
of fine houses and will erect fine city in which will live cheerfully and
pleasantly as in winter, and in summer » [30, p. 3-4].Elfrik (955 - 1020) who
has become subsequently the abbey of a monastery in Oxford was considered as
the largest figure of this period. With it begin history of creation of the
English Bible as it was noted above, Alfred's version (if it really existed)
didn't reach us literature. The particular interest is represented by prefaces
to translation in which Elfrik stated the principles of translation of the
Latin text. And the characteristic detail attracts attention: almost all of
them (except for the preface to bible "Genesis") are written in
Latin. Thus, if translation intended for those whom in the Middle Ages called
the term "idiot", addressees of prefaces were first of all scientific
"litterati", i.e. those church circles which, based on the theory
"threelingua", in general opposed translation from the Bible on local
languages. , Elfrik also had doubts concerning legitimacy of the work and
several times assured that won't be engaged in many translational activities
that "a pearl of the Christ", having begun to sound in "English
language", it wouldn't be trampled. Even in the preface mentioned above to
"Genesis" it is possible to read the statement that his author never
won't dare to translation anymore any book from Latin on the native language
(that, however, didn't prevent Elfrik to carry out subsequently translation of
all Pentateuch and church sermons, also having accompanied them prefaces).
about rules of translation of the Latin text, Elfrik emphasized need to
translate not word for word, and sense to sense, allowing any reductions, the
explanation and change. On the one hand, it is explained by need to reckon with
audience for which transfer is intended. Elfrik recommends to the translator to
use simple style and words clear to all as often the original contains any
rhetorical figures and the jewelry, capable to push away the unsophisticated
reader and to cause in it boredom. On the other hand, Elfrik stated the fears,
as though any fool, having got acquainted with books of the Old Testament,
wouldn't began to imitate characters of the last in all details, thinking as if
it is possible to live and now as lived at patriarchs and Moisey. Therefore,
translating "Genesis", he considered necessary to resort to
"reasonable admissions" where it was a question of polygamy of bible
patriarchs. , transferring Latin sources where the Eastern Roman Empire was
mentioned, Elfrik avoided speaking about board of two emperors not to confuse
the compatriots who submit to one king and got used to see at the head of the
country of one monarch, instead of two. Especially Elfrik emphasizes existence
in sacred books of the highest spiritual essence, stipulating that he retells
only their external matter. Besides considered above works deserves attention
and made by Elfrik in English Latin grammar where he entered some parts of the
well-known grammar of Prussian relating to the VI century.
This book contains also translational supervision (for
example, about existence in each language of own interjections which are
difficult giving in to transfer on other language).If Alfred and Elfrik,
choosing texts for translation, were guided mainly by educational and didactic
reasons, during the considered period appear already and translate of such
works which were intended for entertainment of readers. Here "Alexander's
Letter" and "East Miracles" where it was told about any
fantastic beings and the phenomena, and also a fragment of translation of the
Latin version of the Greek novel about Apollonian Tirsk belong to the story
about adventures of the Syrian monk Malkh, adjoining literature, but possessing
many lines of the adventure antique story., by XI century already there was a
tradition of translations into the Old English language, playing an important
role in formation of English culture. However in 1066 there is an event which
had the major consequences for the country and further development which has in
many respects changed it, - a gain of England Norman duke Wilhelm. Already to
the middle of the XIII century signs of strengthening of a role of English and
gradual replacement of French began to be observed. In 1258 king Henry III
addressed for the first time to the population with the appeal written in
English. The specified tendency especially amplified a century later. In 1362
capital legal proceedings were translated to English and it began to sound for
the first time in parliament. Approximately the statement of English belongs to
the same time as language of school teaching. By the end of the XIV century to
domination of French there comes the end though separate remnants of the last
remained still long time. "English, - it was noted in special literature,
- it was accepted as language of oral communication, but it should win still
recognition as to the best means for creation of written works. French and
Latin were still considered as the most suitable languages for literary
expression; thus, XIV and XV century became witnesses of huge popularity of
translational activity. In the similar way British expected to give to English
translation part of that prestige which original language" possessed. [31,
p. 15]., it is possible to call translations of the composition of this sort
only conditionally. Rather a speech has to go about development of
foreign-language literature and assimilation of the artistic touches used then
at creation of original works.XIV century was marked by also important events
in the sphere of bible translation. In the middle of the century there is
Psalter Richard Roll from Hempoll (county Yorkshire) was which founder. On
different dialects glosses and translations of separate parts of the Scriptus
were made. However the central place here belongs to the first full
reconstruction of the Bible in English, connected with John Uiklif's activity
(1320-1384) - one of the largest religious thinkers of the time, dared to throw
down an open challenge of church hierarchy and spread by it any more one
century of the notorious theory "tthreelingua".about translational
tradition of the XIV century, mention usually and a name of the largest
medieval author Jeffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), the author of glorified "The
Canterbury Tales". Peru Chaucer possesses translates processing from the
French, Latin and Italian languages (including some works of Boccaccio with
whom the English poet was personally familiar, and also Boetsy's well-known
composition "About a consolation philosophy").the XV century John Lidgeyta's
translational activity (1370 was allocated? - 1451? ) whose compositions took
place and at Chaucer represented a peculiar synthesis foreign-language (Latin
and French) sources and original creativity. At the beginning of the century
appeared (some decades later after Chaucer's version) the new translation of
the book of Boetsy, executed by John Walton. English first printer William
Kekston (1422 was engaged in translation also? - 1491? ) whose method of
transfer of the foreign-language original wasn't always free from literalism
(though in prefaces and epilogs it didn't hide own doubts concerning results of
the work). The generous patron was found by translators of antique classics in
the person of John Giptrof, the column Uorchesters (1420-1470) which and
translated Cicero and Caesar., it is possible to note that by the boundary
separating the Middle Ages from Renaissance, in England there was the rich
translational tradition which has passed in the development a big and difficult
way.development of world culture from the perception of translation reveals a
stable group of thoughts and forms, of cultures continually fascinating new
influence for the reason that of the labor of translators. It dispels the
supposition that the whole thing starts in the West and undermines the thought
of rigid limitations flanked by East and West. India, China, Iraq and Spain
have in dissimilar ways wrought European culture. India shaped ties with the
Mediterranean in the sixth century BC and medicinal theories establish in Greek
thinkers like Plato and Galen which came from India. In 9 and 10century
Baghdad, the technical and theoretical works of Ancient Greece were translated
into Arabic and this knowledge spread to Europe via Spain which was practically
a Muslim state from the early 9 century 400 years. programs reached it climax
from side to side the School of Toledo where translations were made from Arabic
to Latin and afterward to Spanish and helped the technical and scientific
development for the European Renaissance. A narration of translation charts
these intersections. They may be entrenched in aggressive historical
disagreement and regal expansions but it is not at all a easy procedure of
translation for misuse.number of of the history of translation is well-charted
- the translation of the Bible, the work of missionaries, the Orientals
translators in India - but present remains huge unidentified territories.
Scholars contain lately begun to mark about the role of entity translators.
Translators as Constance Garnett in England or Gregory Rabassa in the United
States have been answerable for transforming inscription in English by their
individual translations of Russian and Latin American fiction. Come around of
new subsequent freedom in Eastern Europe have come translations of best-selling
American and English authors. The history of translation is the history of the
fundamental but often imperceptible intersections in world culture.was a
important activity in Britain in the Eighteenth Century, and the field was separated
into two distinct areas: translation from classics (focus on Latin and Greek
authors) which was a male-dominated territory, and translation from
contemporary languages (French, German, Italian and Spanish) which was one of
the few fictional genres. Yet, there were some important exceptions in the area
of the classics. As well as in many other things the countries, in England the
first attempts of hypothetical generalizations in the ground of translation
have been undertaken by translators amongst whom there were many protruding
writers and poets. of them accompanied with the translations by widespread
commentary in which they proved or necessary move toward to the choice of a
variety problems of translation, tried to state some system and main beliefs of
translation. In XVI and XVII centuries when translational activity in England
has got especially wide scope, practice of similar translational comments has
received significant propagation. More fundamental works under the theory of
translation have appeared in England only in second half XX centuries. Here it
is possible to note, first of all, T.Sevori's book « art of translation ». In
it the author, tried to consider the broad audience of translational problems.
Though the linguistic basis of this research was obviously insufficient, the
author managed to state is glad positions which have received the further
progress in works under the linguistic theory of translation.structure of the
work of T. Sevori in many respects follows tradition. Here still there is no
statement of the general principles of construction of the theory of
translation; the subjects of sections and their sequence are substantially any.
First of all it is offered to distinguish 4 types of translation. Offered
classification reflects at the same time distinctions in a range of accuracy
and in character of translated materials. Terms which are used at
classification, are not always successful, but the author in sufficient detail
opens their content. V.N. Komissarov's opinion «T. Sevori allocates following
types of translation:
The perfect translation - translation of cleanly
information phrases-announcements.
Adequate translation - translation of subject works
where the content and as it is expressed is important only, insignificantly. In
this type of translation the translator freely lowers words or the whole
offers, which sense it seems to it unclear, will paraphrase sense of the
original as to it will like. (T. Sevori believes, that so detectives, books
Dyuma, Bokkacho, as well as, strangely enough, Servantes and L. Tolstoy should
translate.)
The third type of translation which are not receiving
the special name, is a translation of classical works where the form as is
important, as well as a content. The qualitative characteristic of this type of
translation is given by the indication that not maybe "accomplished"
and that it requires so long time and such major efforts that it brings to
nothing commercial value of translation.
The fourth type of translation is defined as close to
"adequate". It is translation of scientific and technical materials,
whose occurrence is caused by a practical indispensability. It requires good
knowledge the translator of subject matter about whom there is a speech in the
original [32, p. 6]., that the essence of translation always reduces to a
choice, T. Sevori specifies, that at a choice the translator should answer 3
questions consistently:
) That the author has told?
) that it wished to tell it?
) How do you say it? , T. Sevori alongside with
content and the form of the original allocates as object of translation and
that now would name communicative intention of the author.and their labor
engage a essential hole in translation theory: in current years translation
studies has been more and more sketch attention to their vital intervention.
Skopos theory is a case in top. In spite of the reality that the outgoing point
of translation behavior is the middle preoccupation of this come up to, Hans
Vermeer has brought attention to the amount of liberty, on the one hand, and of
liability, on the other hand, bears on language mediators (Vermeer 1998: 54).
Translators are presented as experts who ought to aim and realize those
strategies which allow them to get their purpose, i.e. their scopes. This
column of consideration takes translators to the centre of the phase, and yet
it involves a certain total of risk too: the concept of “accountability” is the
other side of the coin, as translators might be considered answerable for the
consequences of their performance. Thus, it is no accident that proper debates
are successful in translation studies
3. Prospects of the theory of translation development
.1 Schools in Canada
th of 20 century are regarded as a decade of teaching
has got hoarse. Educational institutions on preparation of translators existed
in Canada and before. At University of Ottawa for professional translators have
started to prepare in 1934 the Pioneer translation in Montreal there was George
Panton, the person from mind and the rare general culture, passionately keen
the literature and art. In January, 1942 under its initiative the College of
translation which in 1944 is a part of university of Montreal is looked for. In
1945 Platon - the president of College of translation - represents at
philological faculty of University of Montreal the dissertation first in Canada
about translation. [23, p. 27].
its have published entitled « Transposition and type
of translation ». But, as will write about it of its colleague, Platon thought
after itself not one work, it has created tradition, which continues in works
of its disciples and on activity of the college created by it. To 70th training
to translation is developed countrywide. The most fruitful it appears in
provinces Quebec and also where preparation of translators gets special scope.
Now in these provinces it is concentrated 75 % of universities of the country
leading training of translators. Almost at all universities of these provinces
programs on training open to translation, new teaching materials are developed.
Textbooks also protect dissertations under the theory of translation. Z.Denil
cites following statistical data: with 1968 on 1984 Every year any new program
of training opened To translation, each two years - the new program of a level
of the bachelor And each four years - a level of the master.[23, p.
28].preparation of translators is carried out at 11 Canadian universities.
These are the basic educational establishments where preparation on the given
speciality is conducted, multilevel curriculums are developed. Training to
translation assumes six levels of preparation accordingly and diplomas which
are shown in three cycles: the first cycle of training allows to receive the
certificate (le certificat) the bachelor's degree of the first degree (la
mineure), as well as the bachelor's degree of the second degree (la majeure) or
the bachelor-expert (le baccalaureat specialise); the second cycle assumes
reception of the diploma about higher education (le diplome d'etudes supericun
the diploma of the master (la maitrise); the third cycle brings to reception of
a doctor's degree (le doctorat)., as it is marked in the new report of Branch
committee of the Canadian industry of translators, experts-translators with
university diplomas cannot provide completely demand for the given activity
yet. At annual release of 300 and 320 translators with diplomas of the
bachelor-expert and the master accordingly the demand for experts of the given
qualifications is made annually by 360 and 400 person. The usual bachelors, who
are not having special preparation, cannot compete to professionals any more.
The raised demand from businessmen on the licensed experts-translators shows
how much has increased in a society a level of that understanding, that in translation
professionalism is necessary, that translation is not simply mechanical
recurrence of that has been already told or written up to that, and the most
complicated process of interlingual the intermediaries, requiring solid
vocational training. This position puts before universities new problems in
preparation of qualified personnel in the field of translation. The interesting
form of preparation of professionals-translators accepted at some universities
(the University of Ottawa and University " Concordia " in Montreal),
a little reminding system of preparation of engineers existed in a soviet-era
and factories-high schools, is the program « combined educating-(programme
cooperatif) when training alternates with practical work.of professional translators
has demanded development of such curricula in which the general disciplines and
disciplines special harmoniously would mesh. The big merit of the Canadian
teachers is a rational area of expertise in training translators. In the
beginning of 70th one of the most outstanding Canadian researchers in the field
of history and theories of translation, wrote: « the Problem of the translator
- to translate the text from-one language in another, trying as far as possible
to pass the message which it contains. But as well to translate, it is needed
to know area of translation. It is impossible to require of the translator,
that it was the walking encyclopedia, the trade of the translator, similarly
too many assumes some area of expertise. Therefore there are art translators,
technical, legal, translators of advertising, etc. » [33, p. 75]. So, the
curriculum of preparation of the expert in the field of translation on 1999/00
at University Lavalja (Quebec) alongside with the block of mandatory
disciplinesprovides the block of disciplines special-purpose, including such
janr-thematic differences translational activity, as commercial translation,
biological, sociological, medical, legal, and art.University of Montreal where
training to translation is conducted now at faculty of arts and special-purpose
rates of translation (scientific and technical, commercial and economic, legal
and administrative, medical and pharmacological, as well as art translation,
translation in a cinema, translation in area of the information) mesh with
rates of studying of sublanguages of separate specialities (language of
commerce and economy, language of the right and dialogue, language of medicine
and pharmacology, etc.).
.2"Genre" specialization
"genre" area of expertise is distinctly
shown and in the environment of professional translators. The list of branches
to which those or other professional translators carry themselves, officially
recognized translators of Quebec consisting in Board made by a
"genre" principle, shows very interesting picture. All
"market" of work of translators is divided into following areas of
socioeconomic activity:
) art and the literature;
) the communications;
) economy, a policy, management;
4) the right;
) technics and the industry;
) the humanities;
) tourism and entertainments. [34, p. 101-194]., each
of these branches is subdivided into fineer areas of the appendix of work of
translators. So, the branch "right" includes such thematic areas, as
the commercial right, criminal law, the immigrant right, international law,
constitutional right, a notariate, the labour right. In total in the list it is
named about 200 thematic areas as which professional translators of Quebec rank
them., the Canadian teachers and theorists of translation for a long time have answered
for themselves a question which quite often arises in Russia and in other
countries when it is a question about training the translator to speak is
better - the translator of the wide structure possessing fundamental linguistic
preparation, common cultural knowledge and having an idea about methodology of
translational activity, but unfamiliar with a specific character of the speech
communications in specific social and economic area, or to shape translators of
experts of the most various trades, training in their foreign languages? In the
first case it is available insufficiency of special knowledge, and in the
second rather weak language and translational preparation is inevitable. Canada
branch an area of expertise of translators begins already within the limits of
the first cycle of university training (preparation of bachelors) and then
fixes during all professional work, being supported by participation of
translators in work of numerous branch translational associations.other words,
in Canada in the field of preparation by the translator there is no visible
break between curriculums and inquiries of a labour market. However it is not
necessary to forget, that translation in Canada many other things of the
countries including Russia, substantially is activity interstate, instead of
international. It is caused by internal language conditions - Friench-English
bilingualizm. Therefore the vast majority of translators works with these two
languages. The list of translators, Board of officially recognized translators
of Quebec, than 1400 person from which less than 150 work with other
combination of languages, rather than French and English totals more.such
conditions the area of expertise of translators is quite natural and easily
enough achievable.divisibility of translational activity reflects aspiration of
the Canadian professionals to reach optimum results in the work, to finish
translational skills in the narrow let enough narrow, thematic area to
perfection. Certainly, such aspiration is maybe caused by requirements of
competitive struggle in conditions of the market, high quality of production -
a primary factor of success. But it is doubtless, even more important reason is
the talent of the translator as any artist, completely taming material with
which it works, to subdue the text, with words to force them to shine in other
language environment so brightly, as well as primary.in the art text where a
word - means of creation of forms and in the informative texts functioning in
scientifically technical, economic or legal areas where it is the basic means
of expression of concepts, from accuracy of a choice of a word depends success
in a formulation of idea.area of expertise in preparation and in professional
work of translators goes not only on a thematic line, but also in the steps
translational activity, as well as on in what thinking translation is
conducted: from French on English or to the contrary. Now in Canada four
translational specialities are distinctly divided: the written translator, the
translator of conferences (interprete de conference), the judicial translator
(interprete judiciaire) and terminology (terminologue). The written translator
- the expert in the field of the written communications - will transform the
text written in one language, to the text in other language, aspiring at the
most truly to pass a message occurring the text.translator of conferences -is
the expert in the field of the oral communications - provides simultaneous
interpretation (transfer of the message in parallel its expansion in speech on
the source language by means of the electronic equipment) Or consecutive (oral
translation after each performance) during the congresses, meetings,
conferences, etc. the Judicial translator - the expert in the field of the oral
communications - provides translation during judicial and administrative
trials, translating or is consecutive, when readings of the person subpoenaed,
or synchronously with use of the electronic equipment when in interests of one
of sides it translates all course of judicial debate hearings.- the expert of
area of the communications developing terminology of the certain field of
activity. Leaning on documents and databanks, it makes lists of terms of
studying of branch, gives them definition, finds equivalents in other language,
defines norms of the use of terms in professional work and makes unification of
terms.
.3 Translation and special terminology
Canadian translators, by virtue of a social specific
character of activity more tempted in informative texts, art, already for a
long time have addressed to problems of terminology. As early as in 1902
Jozeph-Evarist Prens has published in magazine « the Bulletin of the French
speech in Canada » the first terminologic the research, devoted to terms of the
railway. [23, p. 62].was published English-French and the French-English
military dictionary. In 1953 director (superquartermaster) Feder the first
bureau of translations Bob'en, having returned from headquarters of the United
Nations in New York where it adopted experience of the organization servise of
translation, initiates creations central servise terminology. In the end of the
same year such service creates the Federal bureau of translations. It joins
created hardly before Technological association of French language Leke the
ecological center. Already in following year the Federal bureau of translations
lets out the first « Terminological bulletins » and « Terminological
instructions ». In 1960 at University of Montreal is created the first of its kind
bank of terminology. In 1978 г within the limits of the Society of translators
of Quebec the Section of terminologists - the first-ever association
professional terminologists is created. Thus, in bowels of translation the new
speciality -terminologist which the uniform objective - unites with translation
maintenance interlingual communications was born.area of expertise in
preparation of translators is marked and in an orientation of training at this
or that university. Four leading universities of the country preparing
translators - University of Montreal, University of Ottawa, University Lavalja
in Quebec and University «Concordia " - have distributed « areas of
influence » as follows. At University Lavalja mainly prepare for written
translators in different areas of professional work. University "
Concordia " gives much attention to art translation. The University of
Montreal appears the leader in preparation of oral judicial translators
(consecutive translation). University of Ottawa while unique university where
prepare for simultaneous translators (translators of conferences)with two
categories of oral translators traditional for Canada (the translator of
conferences and the judicial translatoris necessary to note one more - a
so-called category interprete communautaire. It is a question of professional
translators who are called up to provide the oral communications in conditions
when in contact there is one of official languages of Canada and foreign or
languages of national minorities of the independent population of the
country.given category of translators has arisen after immigrants politicians
of Canada easily enough accepting workers from other countries. The quantity of
translators of this category while is insignificant, but in recent years they
starts to use escalating demand. Their number, as well as division on languages
varies from one province to another depending on national structure of the
population and size of immigrant communities.
.4 Professional associations of translators
leading role in professional work of translators in
the country, in perfection of their preparation, and settlement of their
relationships with clients, as well as in business of protection against
poor-quality translation is played with professional associations of
translators. Z. Delil has named Canada not only paradise for translators
whereas possibilities to find work - working conditions of translators and the
sizes of payment are regarded as one of the best in the world, but also
paradise for translational professional associations. Since 1919 when the first
translational association - « the Circle of translators of books » has been
created, the next professional association of translators arises on the average
each two years. [35, p. 23].set of operating translational associations the
first seat borrows Advice of officially recognized translators of Canada
(Conseil des traducteurs et interpretes agrees du Canada - | TIC), created in
1970 and being with the successor of the Society of translators of Canada (La
Societe des traducteurs et interpretes du anada - STIC). Since 1975 Advice is
engaged main in carrying out of the unified promotion examinations. The
successful passing examinations allow receiving the status « officially
recognized », i.e. the professional translator. The second important field of
activity of Advice -is to represent translators on international scene. Advice
assisted, in particular, to creation in 1986 regional North-American center,
into which besides it have entered American (Amcru Translators Association) and
Mexican (Asociation de Traducti » Profesionales de Mexico) associations of
translators.basic corporate activity of translators develops inside of regional
(provincial) associations. Among them quite considerable position borrow translation
associations of Quebec.1940 in this province the first professional association
of translators - the Society the translator of Montreal (Societe des
traducteurs de Montreal - STM), played a key role in development of translation
as trades has been created. Really, in 40th in translation at the enterprises
the bilingual secretaries who are not had special translational preparations
mainly were engaged. Translation of the industrial documentation often
represented for them the hardest problem.of the enterprises did not reckon with
that bilinguists- the people who are known English and French languages at a
household level, were not ready to translation of the engineering
specifications, sated by special terminology, had no skills translational activity,
did not know receptions interlingual transformation Creation of the Society
answered, thus, to a pressing need in rendering assistance to those bilingual
secretaries and stenographers who, not having vocational training, has been
compelled to be engaged by virtue of the industrial duties in translation.of
the program of actions on improvement of their professional knowledge and
skills has been declared as a primary objective of a new Society. At the first
assembly of the Society three primary goals creation of curriculums to
translation on February, 14th, 1940 have been stated; cooperation with
employers, required services of competent bilingual secretaries and
translators; improvement of economic working conditions of translators and
bilingual stenographers. At the same assembly the first president of the
Society -Jozeph Lariv’er has been selected - and the name is approved: the
Society of translators of Montreal (Socieu des Traducteurs de Montreal /
Montreal Translators Society). Creation of the Society is regarded as a birth
of a new trade in Canada - trades of the translator.the same 1940 in Montreal
rates of translation where employment are conducted under direction of George
Pantona will be organized. These rates also became a prototype of College of
the translation opened by Platon in two years. In the first year of existence
there is also light the first number of the bulletin of the Society - magazine
" Translator " (The Translator), the first special periodical, the
translation devoted to questions. All materials were published in magazine
symmetrically in two official languages of the country.the magazine could not
exist and year - the edition has suddenly stopped in July, 1941, and only later
five years, in 1946, there was its successor - magazine " Аргус ". In
this periodical it was published not only the information on activity of the
Society, but also results of researches in the field of the theory of
translation and translational practice. The society was not limited only to a
problem of association of translators and increases of a level of their
professional competence. It aspired to draw attention of the public to a trade
all possible means.1941 General meeting of the Society has accepted the
resolution, addressed to Municipal council of Montreal, with the offer to name
one of streetsof the known journalist and translator Lui Fran. Per 1965 the
Society of translators of Montreal will be transformed to a society of
translators of Quebec (Societe des traducteurs du Quebec) and becomes, thus, not
so city, and the provincial organization.this period in Canada there are some
more translational professional associations. In 1956 is created a society of
translators of Canada (Societe des traducteurs et interpretes in Canada -
STIC), in 1957 - Corporation professional in translators of Quebec (Corporation
des traducteurs professionnels du Quebec - CTPQ), in 1958 - Association of
judicial translators Asociation des interpretes et des traducteurs judiciaires
- AITJ). Translator associations merge and changing the status and scales of
their activity, there are new organizations, names old change.this period in
Canada there are some more translational professional associations. In 1956 is
created a society interestingly to track destiny of one of such translationalassociations.
In 1946 the Association of graduates of College of translation of University of
Montreal (Association des diplomes ik % rinstitut de traduction de l'Universite
de Montreal - ADITUM) which in 1955 has received the national status has been
created and was renamed in the Canadian association deplumed translators
(Association canadienne des traducteurs diplomes - ACTD). (Association there
was an edition with 1955 of theoretical magazine on translation - « Magazine of
translators » (Journal des tra-ilucteurs) which with 1966 and on present time
leaves entitled МЕТА. Per 1959 the Association will be transformed to the
Society of graduates of College of translation (Societe des diplomes de
rinsiiin de traduction - SDIT), and per 1965 - in the Circle translators
(Cercle des traducteurs - CDT). In two years members of associations together
with members of Corporation of professional translators of Quebec make a
decision on dissolution of the organizations and about the introduction the
uniform block in the Society of translators of Canada as occurs a year
later.the book « Translation in Canada » Z.Delil divides the translational
organizations of the country which all it is totaled more than two , into five
groups: 1) provincial associations and National Advice; 2) professional
associations of Quebec; 3) the Canadian associations; 4) the various
organizations; 5) associations of the students trained translation.Quebec the
most authoritative professional association of translators long time remains
the Society of translators of Quebec. Per 1992 it has been transformed to
Professional corporation of officially recognized translators of Quebec
(Corporation professionelle des traducteurs et interpretes agio du Quebec -
CPTIAQ). Since April, 1994 and on present time this organization refers to as
Board of officially recognized translators of Quebec (Ordre des traducteurs et
interpretes agrees du Quebec - OTIAQ). The board unites more than 1400
professional translators (all in Canada nearby 5000 officially incorporated
translators now are totaled). The board sees the main task in improving quality
and efficiency of the communications by perfection of knowledge and skills of
the members, increase of their competence of areas of written and oral
translations and terminology, as well as in protecting the consumer from
substandard translational production.is possible to notice, that in documents
of translational association’s widely economic terminology is used. It once
again emphasizes that in Canada translational activity became branch of
economy, the present industry with the laws and regulating documents, bodies of
quality assurance of production and bodies of accreditation of new workers,
with the periodicals and educational institutions., we have got acquainted with
experience of predecessors and our contemporaries, colleagues from some foreign
countries where the cardinal importance is given to translation. The analysis
of this experience not only shows a role of translation in progress of a human
civilization, in propagation of religious and scientific knowledge, among
national languages and literatures, in maintenance between representatives of
the most various cultures, helps to understand more deeply problems which face
the modern theory of translation.of all we should ascertain, that a major part
of outstanding issues of the theory of translation, for example, as questions
about translation, about equivalence, about the creative beginning in
translation and its borders, about transformations and distortions, about that,
finally, what to consider as translation and a trade the translator, as well as
many other things, discussed during more than two millenniums, till now have
not received the final decision. But it at all does not speak, that these problems
concern to a category initially unresolved, therefore to them and it is not
necessary to address.testifies only that translation is the intellectual
activity requiring multilateral profound studying, the new theoretical
knowledge of those aspects of translation which from time immemorial are in
sight theorists and experts of translation, is capable to add a picture of the
most complicated process, named with translation. N.R. Barhudarov in the
conclusion to the book about translation gives of a word of English philosopher
I.A. Richards, « colourfully describing this type of intellectual activity: «
very much maybe, that here we deal with the complicated process from everything
which have arisen ever during evolution of space ». [36, p. 231].in USAthe USA
4 higher educational institutions which prepare for translators are known:
Monterej institute of translators (California), New-York university, University
of state of Iowa (specializes on art translation) and university in Washington.
All of them enter in CIUTI.most popular for today is the Monterej institute.
This unique educational institution in the USA where translation into foreign
language is taught and where train in simultaneous interpretation. Oral
translation is not separated from written. From entrants the knowledge of
foreign language at a level of bilinguals and some practical experience of
translational work is required. It is necessary to have also even some rates of
higher education in other high school. Training lasts 2 years. On I a rate terminology
accustoms to different areas (political, economic, legal); here are developed
procedures of mastering of greater blocks of lexicon with conformity in an
active stock (A.Falaleeva's procedure); students get acquainted also with
management of translation.study in legal and economic texts to translate on I a
rate, technical and political - on 2nd rate. Training of the shorthand
translational record is not spent. A role of the theory in training weak,
subordinated. In Monterey prepare for translators of the widest structure
without restriction subjects, therefore at final examination the student can
receive for translation the text of any subjects unprepared
Schools for Translation/Interpreting/Translation
Studies
This list contains translation schools and universities
throughout the world
UK
Centre for Translation and Comparative Cultural Studies,
“The Graduate School”, “University of Warwick”,
CoventryEnglish, English-Chinese Translating and Interpreting, MA/Diploma,
Language Centre, “University of Newcastle”for Translation and Intercultural
Studies, “University of Manchester Institute of Science & Technology”for
Translation Studies, “University of Surrey”of Modern Languages, “University of
Bradford”Applied Translation Studies, “University of North London” - joint
venture between the University of North London (United Kingdom), “the
Maastricht School of Translation and Interpreting of the Hogeschool Maastricht”
(The Netherlands), and “Institut Libre Marie Haps” in
Brussels (Belgium)in Translation Studies, “Centre for British and Comparative
Cultural Studies”, “University of Warwick”, CoventryTranslation Studies
(Linguistics), “Centre for English Language Studies”, “University of
Birmingham”Studies (TRA), “Middlesex University, Tottenham”of European Studies
and Modern Languages, “University of Bath”of Diplomacy & Applied Languages
(DDAL), “University of Westminster”, Londonof Languages & European Studies,
“Aston University”, BirminghamCourses for the Diploma in Translation - University
based/Distance learning, Centre for Language Studies, “City University London”
“University of Salford”, Manchester
Australia
Department of Linguistics, “School of Modern Languages”,
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, “University of New South Wales”, Sidney
Canada
“Université du Québec
en Outaouais
in Gatineau”, Canada
“Université de Sherbrooke”
“Concordia University”
“Université Laval”
“Université du Québec
à Trois-Rivières”
“Département de
traduction et des langues”, University of Moncton
“Département de
linguistique et de traduction”, Université de Montréal
French, Foreign Languages and Translation Studies, “School of
Continuing Studies”, University of Toronto
“School of Interpretation and Translation”, University of
Ottawa
Baccalauréat,
certificat de traduction, certificat de traduction (cours par Internet),
Faculté des arts, “Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface”,
(Manitoba)of
Translation, “Glendon College, York University”, Toronto, OntarioStudies -
“Centre for Continuing Education”, McGill University, Montreal
USA
“The Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation”,
“Monterey Institute of International Studies”, Monterey, CAfor Interpretation
and Translation Studies, “University of Hawaii”for Translation Studies,
“University of Texas” at Dallas, TXLanguage Institute and Center for
Translation Services, “Florida A&M University”, Tallahasseeof American Sign
Language, Linguistics and Interpretation, “Gallaudet University”, Washington,
DCProgram in Bilingual Legal Interpreting, “University of Charleston”,
SCStudies, Graduate Center, City “University of New York”, NYTranslation
Certificate Program, “University of Pittsburgh”, PATranslator Training Program,
“Institute of Applied Linguistics”, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio
“Translation & Interpretation, Bellevue Community
College”, Washington State
“Translation and Interpretation Institute”, Washington
Academy of LanguagesResearch and Instruction Program (TRIP), “Binghamton
University, NY”Research Group, “Brigham Young University”, Provo, UtahStudies,
Department of Comparative Literature, “Indiana University”, Bloomington, IN
Zealandand Interpreting, School of Languages, “Auckland Institute of
Technology”for Translation & Interpreting Studies, Faculty of Arts,
“University of Auckland
Conclusion
We get acquainted with the translation history in Ancient
timescan compare the development of translation study in Canada and U.S.A.
considered the universities in Canada and USA the Ottawa's University
professional translators firstly prepared in 1934
the Translation study takes place across the country.the
translation training is at 11 Canadian universities.the USA 4 higher
educational institutions which prepare for translators are known: Institute of
translators (California), York university, of state of Iowa (specializes on art
translation) in Washington. translation study, similarly to other scientific
disciplines has developed thanks to efforts of the scientists of different
countries.for translation, in our time translation theory is well developed and
now has all the conditions to facilitate the task of the translator, such as a
variety of dictionaries, tools for text recognition, electronic dictionaries
and translators of texts. And I believe that the translators will be an
important profession as it is now and a few decades later. Translators will
always be needed as well as teachers and doctors.
List of used literary sources
1.V.N. Komissarov “Общая теория перевода”
2. Henri Van Hoof “histore de la traduction” en
Occident Paris 1991 p.7
. N.K Gorbovskii “Теория
перевода” p 12, [4. p 214]
4. A. Tytler “Принципы перевода” p 66
. A.B. Fedorov Основы общей теории перевода p 14
. Shweicer
A.D. “Теория перевода, статус проблемы, аспекты” 1988 p75
7. G. Steiner “After Babel” Oxford 1975 p 224
8. Нелюбин Л. «Наука о переводе» Мировые религии и их роль в
развитии перевода 2008 p 22
. “Вопросы теории перевода в современной зарубежной
лингвистике” 1978
. M.T. Ciero «Три трактата об ораторском искусcтве» 1972 p 104 [12.]
11.Цит по книге Kloepher R. Die theorie de
literarischen Uebesetzung 1967 P 22
. Plinii junior writes 1983 p 122
. Семенец О.Е. Панасьев А.Н. История перевода
p 64
14.Nelyubin l.l. «наука о переводе» учебное пособие
2008 P 18
.Coutun L.S. “указ. соч” 10
.Bulanin
D.M. Указ. Соч. p 48,
[19.p 50] [20, p. 37]
. Sobolevskii A. I. “Западное влияние на литературу Московской Руси 15-17 вв”
1899 с 12-13
. Rijski I.M. указ. Соч. С 112
.цит по книге Буланин Д.М. указ. соч с 33
. Чин Миллера в соответствии c «Табелью о рангах»
. Винокур Г.О. «Избранные работы по русскому языку 1959» с
131
22 in several works of Shaplein “Советский
энциклопедический словрь” 1980 с 1515
. Delisle J. Op. cit. P. 54-55. 41 44
. См.: Daviault P. Traducteurs et traduction au Canada // Mémoires
de la Société royale du Canada. Troisième
série, 1944.
T. XXXVIII. P. 67 et alii
. Cormier M.C. Francoeur A. bibliographie(1988-1999) Lexicologie, lexicographie,
terminologie et terminographie, traduction et interprétation, langues et
linguistique, dictionnaires, cédéroms. Document de travail.
Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie. Réseau LTT. Lexicologie , Terminologie,
Traduction. Montréal, 2000
. Nida, Eugene A. Bible Translating: an Analysis of
Principles and Procedures. N.Y., American Bible Society, 1947. P 54
. Nida, Eugene A. Language Structure and Translation.
Essays. Stanford (Calif.), 1975. p 125
. Опубликована в сборнике статей №29 Московского
государственного областного университета "Проблемы теории языка и
переводоведения". М.:Изд-во МГОУ, 2006. - С.50-63.
. Melnikova E.A, “Меч и лира Англосаксонское общество в истории и эпосе”
1987 с 54
30. Amos F.R. Early theories of translation New York
1920 p 3-4
. Blake N.F. The English language in Medieval
literature London 1978 p 15
32. V.N.Komissarov Общая теория перевода. Москва, 1999. P 6
. Horguelin P. La profession du
traducteur. Société des traducteurs du Québec
1974. P. 75
34.Traduction.
Terminologie. Interprétation. Répertoire 1999-2000. Ordre
des traducteurs
et interprètes agréés du Québec. P. 101-194.
.«Синие книги» - сборники дипломатических документов. Delisle J. Op. cit. P. 23.
36. Цит. по.: Бархударов Л.С. Язык и перевод. М., 1975. С. 231.
Appendix