History of runes
History of runes
Fulfilled by the second year student of
Rostov State Pedagogical University Translation Department Neustroev Cyril
Rostov-on-Don
2001
From ancient times mankind was appealed by unknown writings:
half-forgotten antique languages, Egypt hieroglyphs, Indian inscriptions… The
fate of runes was much happy – their sense wasn’t lost in the course of time,
even when Latin alphabet became dominating one in Europe. For instance, runes
were used in calendars till the end of the 18-th c.
Modern linguists think that runes posses another kind of meaning,
which we cannot find in ideograms, hieroglyphs or in modern exotic alphabets –
this meaning exists in subconsciousness level. Runes were the personification
of the surrounding world, essence of outlook. With the help of special links
between runes a man could express nearly everything, compiling them (so called
combined runes). In different times runes could change their meaning, so we can
say this adjusting system created dozens of meanings of one and the same
symbol. (Linguists find confirmation of this theory in the following example –
every rune in different languages had separate and original meaning, which
didn’t fully coincide with another one in the second language.
Like all others components of language, runes endured numerous
changes: in form, style of writing, system of sounds and letters, which
expressed them. We can say, that these alphabets took wide spreading not only
among Scandinavian and German tribes, but we can also trace its penetration in
Celtic and Slavonic languages. Now runes keep their main original meaning - in
the beginning they were the symbols of fortunetelling lore with sacred sense
and mystic signs (The general matter why they didn’t get wide diffusion before
AD). Even the word “rune” corresponds as “secret” (compare old Celtic “run”,
middle welsh “rown”, modern German “raunen”). The last 1000 years in Iceland
runes have been used for divination. In Anglo-Saxon England the hours of king
council were called “runes”.
The most important sources about runic history are ancient texts of
Scandinavian pagan religion – Old Edda by Brynolf Swesson and Lesser Edda by
Snorri Sturlusson. They were two missionaries who discovered these manuscripts
in the time of Christian expansion. Another documents containing the
information about runes origin are Northern king sagas “Red leather” and
Icelandic kin chronicles. Tombstones, altars, pagan pillars called “runic
stones” played quite catholic role in scientific researches - usually they are
found dappled with miscellaneous writings (Gothland, Upland, Norway). The most
famous is Cilwer stone, which dates from the 5-th c. So we can find a lot of writings
on jewels and weapon, for barbarians believed things had to posses their own
names (breakteats).
German and Slavonic runic writing was the letter system of peculiar
look, accounted by the writing technique on bone, wood and metal. Nowadays we
have the main runic alphabet, consisting of 24 signs, may be more, but another
ones are regarded as variants or combined runes. Letters of any language can
have several sources of origin, for a taste Greek language, which gave the
birth to North Italian writing, had a good many of meaning for every sign. This
tradition was inherited by Etruscan alphabet and later by runic one. However,
Christian chronicles of 9-12c, known as «songs», revealed information about
rune names and their meanings. Every rune in it conforms to one strophe, which
begins with this rune and its name. In its turn, the name begins with its
sound. The whole system is divided into 2 parts – futarks (arises from the
first symbols – F, U, Th, A, R, K: Old futark (runes of Old German origin – o.f.)
and Late futark (modifications of o.f. in Northumbrian, Frisian and Anglo-Saxon
alphabets). 24 signs traditionally gradate into 3 groups of 8 symbols called
atts (“part of land “ or “kin” compare Scot. "airt”, Ireland
“aird).
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Old futark old Norway German runes
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Comparing scheme of different futarks and their development
Anglo-Saxon futark
The origin of futark remains the matter of severe debates between
historians, linguists and philologists. There are two main theories: 1) Runic
writing appeared on the basis of Latin alphabet; 2) cradles of these signs are
in transalpine and North Italian scripts. Scientists have a lot of historical
facts, approving that Etruscan merchants used this system. Probably they
brought it to the North (6-th c. B.C.). However some researchers think that
runes cropped up in German tribes from ancient Rome Latin writing. Comparing 3
letter types we have: 10 runic letters in Etruscan language, which absolutely
coincide each other; 5 coinciding runic letters and 8 resembling ones in Latin.
Latin, Etruscan and some symbols from Greek originate from Akhiram alphabet
(10c. B.C.). But the construction of runic alphabet (RA) different from others
– for example, order of the first letters. The main period of development is
one, when occult signs, used in Alpine region and in the North, became combine
sole system. Many runic symbols were used as icons, showing various things and
animals. Some runologists suppose that even in the most developed variant they
are close to pictures: rune “Fehu” f symbolizes cattle, Thurisaz q l, – thorn, Wunjo
w – weathercock, Algiz z – elk, Zin xxs– lightning, Yr u – bow, Edhwaz m –
horse.
The top of development and complete formation of RA system was in
1-2 c. AD.
The number of runes in alphabet varied in the course of time. 28
sings appeared in the middle of the 6-th c. In Britain where German runes
penetrated in the 5-th c. with Anglo-Saxon invasion, Frisian futark was
improved by the some additions and changes (mostly combined runes) and numbered
29 units. In Northumberland 33 rune system existed already, with the mixture of
Celtic runes. Whilst on the Continent o.f. went through the number of another
changes. In the middle of the 7-th c. the tendency to simplification appeared –
some runes changed in inscription, some were lost. To the middle of the 10-th
c. the number of runes decreased to 16 units and late futark formed. It was
purely writing system, which wasn’t used for fortune telling. It got wide
spreading not only on the territory of German Empire, but in the North too, for
example in Denmark and Swiss. The difference between them was in writing
technology – Swiss ones were simpler, with short branches. Apparently it can be
explained that it gained everyday using. This system, if not take notice of its
disadvantages, was in circulation till 12-th c.
The next step in development of RA took place in the middle of the
12-th c. by adding dots to 16 sign system (dotted alphabet). It was used along
with Latin one till the 16-th c. We can find its variants in Slavonic
manuscripts. Hipped and branchy RA weren’t alike to dotted one.
Combined (constrained)
runes. They attract attention by their unusual form – it is too difficult to
regard it as ordinary symbol. Their use is quite miscellaneous: in amulets,
braketeats, and everywhere when difficult magic formulas were necessary. Runes
are bind on the strength of common line .
Comparing scheme of Gothic alphabet (upper rows) and Gothic runes
(lower rows).
But, knowing all these peculiarities, we still can’t answer to the
question, from where runes came. So, a few scientists suppose that German and
Slavonic RA had the same roots and originated from a same proto-language, for
Etruscan theory is rather imperfect – Scandinavians couldn’t borrow it, because
Etruscan writings were used too far away from the North and in quite small
territory. The following theory is closely connected with national migrations
and mythology. One of the legendary Scandinavian tribes – vanes or veneds –
came to the North from the East, where they set up Slavonic tribe – Vyatichi.
We haven’t got any historical confirmations, that Slavonic people didn’t have
writing systems before Cyril and Mefodius coming, so hypothetically we can
believe that such system existed. Moreover, archeological researches showed
that there were some traces of RA on the territory of ancient Russia. It differs
from Scandinavian ones and looks like as Latin and Greek letters:
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but in common it coincides with o.f. So we can say that when
Slavonic tribes divided into non-relative kins, RA went through changes of
different kind. In the end of the 1-st millennium BC veneds were vanished by
Germanic barbarian hordes and proto runic system spread rapidly on the
territory from the Black sea to Gaul. As it is follow from archeological
discoveries RA can be found on the Slavonic jewels dated from 10-th c. AD, but
it is difficult to say if they were originally Russian or Scandinavian ones –
perhaps, runes on the jewelries were regarded as the part of design and in was
copied blindly.
Different Slavonic variants of Scandinavian runes
Список литературы
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