Great Britain during and after the Napoleonic wars
Introduction
The period from 1799 to 1815 is often referred to as
the “Napoleonic Wars”. These years and the two following decades became one of the
most difficult episodes of the British history. That was the time when Great
Britain had to fight a lot, and had to recover from fighting. The purpose of
this survey is to give a brief description of British domestic and foreign
policy, economic and social situation throughout the mentioned period and to
provide essential information about the role that Great Britain played during
so-called “Napoleonic Wars”.
1. Great Britain during the “Napoleonic Wars”
In the 1790's, the wars of the French
Revolution merged into the Napoleonic Wars, as Napoleon Bonaparte took over the
French revolutionary government. Great Britain, as the most of the European
nations, was engaged into the set of conflicts. At first the war did not go
well for Britain. The First Coalition with Prussia, Austria, and Russia
against the French collapsed in 1796, and in 1797 Britain was beset by naval
defeat and by naval mutiny. The Battle of the Nile in 1798, however, was one
of the hours of the British Navy brightest glory.
Napoleon Bonaparte was climbing to power in
France, by directing her successful arms against the world. He had beaten
Germany and conquered Italy; he had threatened England, and his dream was of
the conquest of the East. Like another Alexander, he hoped to subdue Asia, and
overthrow the hated British power by depriving it of India. Hitherto, his
dreams had become earnest by the force of his marvellous genius, and by the ardour
which he breathed into the whole French nation. And when he set sail from
Toulon, with 40,000 tried and victorious soldiers and a magnificent fleet, all
were filled with vague expectations of almost fabulous glory. He swept away
the Knights of St. John from their rock of Malta, and sailed for Alexandria in
Egypt, in the end of June, 1798.
His intentions had not become known, and the
English Mediterranean fleet was watching the course of this great armament. Sir
Horatio Nelson was in pursuit, with the English vessels, and wrote to the
First Lord of the Admiralty: "Be they bound to the Antipodes, your
lordship may rely that I will not lose a moment in bringing them to
action".
Nelson had, however, not ships enough to be detached
to reconnoitre, and he actually overpassed the French, whom he guessed to be on
the way to Egypt. He arrived at the port of Alexandria on the 28th of June, and
saw its blue waters and flat coast lying still in their sunny torpor, as if no
enemy were on the seas. He went back to Syracuse, but could learn no more
there. He obtained provisions with some difficulty, and then, in great anxiety,
sailed for Greece, where at last, on the 28th of July, he learnt that the
French fleet had been seen from Candia, steering to the south-east, about four
weeks since. In fact, it had actually passed by him in a thick haze, which
concealed each feet from the other, and had arrived at Alexandria on the 1st of
July three days after he had left it. Every sail was set for the south, and at
four o'clock in the afternoon of the 1st of August a very different sight was
seen in Aboukir Bay, so solitary a month ago. It was crowded with shipping.
Great castle-like men-of-war rose with all their proud calm dignity out of the
water, their dark portholes opening in the white bands on their sides, and the
tricoloured flag floating as their ensign. There were thirteen ships of the
line and one, towering high above the rest, with her three decks, was L'Orient,
of 120 guns. The British had only fourteen little ships, not one carrying
more than 74 guns, and one only 50.
Why Napoleon had kept the fleet there was never
known. In his usual way of disavowing whatever turned out ill, he laid the
blame upon his naval officers. But, though dead men could not tell tales, his
papers made it plain that the ships had remained in the obedience to commands,
though they had not been able to enter the harbour of Alexandria. Large rewards
had been offered to any pilot who would take them in, but none could be found
who would venture to steer into that port a vessel drawing more than twenty
feet of water. They had, therefore, remained at anchor outside, in Aboukir Bay,
drawn up in a curve along the deepest of the water, with no room to pass them
at either end, so that the commanders reported that they could bid defiance to
a force more than double their number. The French believed that Nelson had not
ventured to attack them when they had passed by one another a month before, and
when the English fleet was signalled, they still supposed that it was too late
in the day for an attack to be made.
Nelson had, however, no sooner learnt that the
French were in sight than he signalled from his ship, the Vanguard, that
preparations for battle should be made, and in the meantime summoned up his
captains to receive his orders during a hurried meal. He explained that, where
there was room for a large French ship to swing, there was room for a small
English one to anchor, and, therefore, he designed to bring his ships up to the
outer part of the French line, and station them close below their adversaries.
In the fleet went, through the fierce storm of
shot and shell from a French battery in an island in advance. Nelson's own
ship, the Vanguard, was the first to anchor within half-pistolshot of a
French ship, the Spartiate. The Vanguard had six colours flying,
in case any should be shot away; and such was the fire that was directed on
her, that in a few minutes every man at the six guns in her forepart was killed
or wounded, and this happened three times. Nelson himself received a wound in
the head, which was thought at first to be mortal, but which proved but slight.
He would not allow the surgeon to leave the sailors to attend to him till it
came to his turn.
Meantime his ships were doing their work gloriously. The Bellerophon
was, indeed, overpowered by L'Orient, 200 of her crew killed, and
all her masts and cables shot away, so that she drifted away as night came on.
But the Swiftsure came up in her place, and the Alexander and Leander
both poured in their shot. The French admiral received three wounds, but
would not quit his post, and at length a fourth shot almost cut him in two. He
desired not to be carried below, but that he might die on deck.
About nine o'clock the ship took fire, and
blazed up with fearful brightness, lighting up the whole bay, and showing five
French ships with their colours hauled down, the other's still fighting on.
Nelson himself rose and came on deck when this fearful glow came shining from
sea and sky into his cabin. He gave orders that the English boats should
immediately be put off for L'Orient, to save as many lives as possible.
Then a thundering explosion shook down to the
very hold every ship in the harbour, and burning fragments of L'Orient came
falling far and wide, splashing heavily into the water, in the dead, awful
stillness that followed the fearful sound. English boats were plying busily
about, picking up those who had leapt overboard in time. Some were dragged in
through the lower portholes of the English ships, and about seventy were saved
altoghether. By sunrise the victory was complete. Nay, as Nelson said,
"It was not a victory, but a conquest". Only four French ships
escaped, and Napoleon and his army were cut off from home. The destruction of
Napoleon's fleet left his troops in a position from which no victories were
likely to extricate them.
With Napoleon out of the way William Pitt was
able to form the Second Coalition with Russia and Austria. The Russian army
drove the French out of North Italy, and the king of Naples effected a counterrevolution
in the South with the support of Horatio Nelson's fleet. In the autumn of 1798
Napoleon left his army and returned to Paris. He overthrew the Directory and
established himself as First Consul. The war with revolutionary France entered
its second phase. At first the French armies were welcomed as liberators by
both the middle and lower classes of the countries they occupied. Presently
the people of the conquered countries found that their interests were always
subordinated to those of France. The price of "liberation" was heavy
taxes and the conscription of their sons to fill the gaps in the ranks of the
French army. War was necessary for the continued internal stability of
Napoleonic France, yet war could be carried on only by the progressive
exploitation of the "liberated" territories. The result was that the
very classes which had welcomed the French were gradually alienated. The French
occupation created a burgeous nationalism that turned against its creators.
Napoleon had many years of victory before him
in 1799. A short and brilliant campaign reconquered Italy, and the Second
Coalition collapsed in the last days of 1800. In the years that followed, with
Britain alone left in the war and no important land operations, Napoleon
created the Code Napoleon and an efficient civil service. In 1802 Britain had
to make peace with Napoleon at Amiens, The Treaty of Amiens was a mere truce.
It left France in control of Holland and all the western bank of the Rhine. War
broke out again the following year.
When the war was resumed, Napoleon had Spain
and Holland as his allies, and was making plans to invade Britain if the French
and Spanish fleets could be concentrated to cover the crossing. These plans
never came true, as both fleets were destroyed in the glorious battle of Trafalgar.
The naval battle of Trafalgar, one of the most
celebrated naval engagements in European history, was fought on October 21,
1805, by a British fleet and a combined French and Spanish fleet. The battle
took place off Cape Trafalgar on the southern coast of Spain, where a British
fleet of 27 ships under the command of Admiral Nelson had to fight against a
slightly larger combined enemy fleet commanded by a French admiral.
The French admiral had the intention to slip
out of Cadiz, which was under British blockade, to land troops in southern
Italy, where the French were fighting. The fleet, however, was intercepted by
Nelson on October 21.
The French and Spanish ships formed their
ships into a single battle line, south to north. Nelson, however, surprised
them by ordering his ships into two groups, each of which assaulted and cut
through the French fleet at right angles, demolishing the battle line. This
created confusion, giving the British fleet an advantage. The battle began
shortly before noon and ended late in the afternoon. Some 20 French and Spanish
ships had been destroyed or captured, while not a single British vessel was
lost. The British suffered about 1500 casualties, among them Admiral Nelson,
who was mortally wounded. The British naval victory under Horatio Nelson saved
Britain from invasion. The great naval battle of 1805 is recorded in the name
of Trafalgar Square in London. The square is dominated by the 145-ft. fluted
granite column supporting a large statue of Nelson, with four lions at the base
and four bronze reliefs cast from captured French cannon and illustrating the
battles where they were taken.
The year 1805 witnessed the creation of the
Third Coalition with Russia and Austria, which also collapsed in 1807. Napoleon
then ruled a vast empire which included Northern Italy, the East coast of the
Adriatic, all the territory west of the Rhine with Holland and a large area of
North Germany from Cologne to Lubeck. Spain, Naples, Poland and all Central and
Southern Germany formed his vassal states.
It was upon Russia and Spain that Napoleon was
finally broken. Neither of these counties had a strong middle class that made
the victory of the French easier in other European countries. For a time
Napoleon and Alexander I combined to dominate Europe. There were plans to marry
a Russian Grand-Princess to the French emperor to strengthen the political
union, but Napoleon was not prepared to treat the Tzar of Russia as an equal and
Alexander refused to be subordinate.
Important events took place in Portugal and
Spain. Portugal had been for a century dominated by the British government, and
that was the reason of the country's refusal to recognize Napoleon's
"Continental System". A French army was sent there to prevent trade
between Portugal and Britain. At the same time, Napoleon made an attempt to
change his indirect control over Spain for a direct rule by making his brother
Joseph the Spanish king. This provoked an instantaneous and universal revolt.
The Spainsh led an active guerrilla war against the French, and Napoleon was
forced to concentrate larger and larger forces in Spain.
In 1808 Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington,
was sent with a small army to defend Portugal and assist the Spanish insurrection.
The French had about 300,000 men in the Peninsula but were seldom able to
concentrate morethan about one-fifth against Wellington, the rest being engaged
in small operations all over the country. Every attempt at a concentration
left large areas open to the guerrillas, so that the regular and irregular wars
set up an interaction before which the French were helpless. In 1811, when
Napoleon had to draw away part of his forces for his Russian campaign,
Wellington was able to take the offensive and step by step the French were
driven out of the Peninsula.
An army of nearly half a million — Poles, Germans
and Italians as well as Frenchmen — was massed by Napoleon in 1811 to invade
Russia. The march of the Grand Army to Moscow in 1812 and its disastrous
retreat set Europe once more ablaze.
Germany rose against the defeated emperor and
at last the French found themselves opposed to nations in arms. Although the
French emperor quickly collected a new army that was almost as large as the one
he had lost in Russia, Napoleon was decisively beaten at Leipzig in October
1813.
In spite of this he rejected an offer of peace
which would have given him the Rhine as a frontier and in April 1814 the allies
entered Paris. The Bourbons were restored, and Napoleon was banished to the
Island of Elba.
Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia then sent
their representatives to the Congress of Vienna to discuss the important
problems of European policy. The work of the Congress was interrupted in 1815
by Napoleon, who had escaped from the exile and, having returned to France,
launched the Hundred Days' Campaign which ended with his defeat at Waterloo.
The main features of the settlement arrived
at by the Congress of Vienna were the restoration of despotism and the triumph
of what was called "the principle of legitimacy". Revolution was
considered to be as much the enemy as France, and the victory of reaction was
sealed by the Holy Alliance in which Austria, Russia and Prussia agreed to give
each other mutual support against the horrors of revolutionary uprisings. The
Holy Alliance was used to justify international action against risings in
Italy, Germany and elsewhere. Yet neither Prussia nor Russia could restore
Europe to its previous state, and the Holy Alliance did not survive the upheavals
of 1830.
In France the restoration of the Bourbons did
not mean the restoration of aristocratic privilege in the villages or the
suppression of the Code Napoleon. In Germany, though Prussia extended her
power over the Rhine-land, many of the social changes resulting from the French
occupation went undisturbed. Small German states were drawn together into the
German Confederation in which Austria and Prussia both participated and which
inevitably became the theatre of a battle between them for the hegemony of
Central Europe.
The victory over Napoleon laid the
foundations for a great extension of the British Empire. Britain got a number
of strategic key points: Malta, Mauritius, Ceylon, Heligoland and the Cape,
then inhabited only by a few Dutch farmers and valued only as a stopping place
on the way to India. Yet the first result of the peace was a severe political
and economic crisis.
2. Great Britain after Waterloo
In Britain, the general rejoicings that
followed the victory over Napoleon were not well founded. The British had
assumed that the ending of war would open a vast market for their goods and had
piled up stocks accordingly. Instead, there was an immediate fall in the demand
for them. Europe was still too disturbed and too poor to take any great
quantity of British manufactured goods.
One important market had been actually opened
by the war, which had cut Spain off from South America and left its colonies
virtually independent. This, however, had only led to crazy speculation and
the flooding of the market with all kinds of goods for many of which no
possible demand existed. There was also possibility to trade in the West Indies
as well as in the Far East, but these markets could absorb only a limited
quantity of the British goods.
As a result of it in 1815 exports and imports
fell. There was a heavy slump in wholesale prices. Thus, iron fell from
£20 to £8 a ton. Most of the blast-furnaces went out of production
and thousands of workers lost their work.
The crisis was also intensified by other
causes. Three hundred thousand demobilized soldiers and sailors were forced to
compete in an already overstocked labour market. Wages fell considerably, while
prices were kept artificially high by the policy of inflation which Pitt had begun
in 1797 when he allowed the Bank of England to issue paper money without a
proper gold backing. Taxation was kept at a high level by the huge Debt
charges, amounting in 1820 to £30,000,000 out of a total revenue of
£53,000,000. The reckless borrowing by means of which the war had been
financed left a heavy burden upon several generations of the British. Inflation
and high taxes prevented the rapid recovery of industry.
This post-war crisis was marked by a sudden outburst
of class conflict. A series of disturbances began with the introduction of the
Corn Bill in 1815 and went on until the close of the year 1816. In London riots
ensued and were continued for several days, while the Bill was discussed in
Parliament. At Bridport there were riots on account of the high price of bread.
At Bideford there were similar disturbances to prevent the export of grain. At
Bury St. Edmunds and any other towns the unemployed made attempts to destroy
machinery. They regarded machinery as enemy that deprived them of their work.
Machine wrecking was inspired by the ideas of a certain Ludd, and people who
joined it were called the Luddites.
The Luddite riots centred in the Nottingham hosiery
area, where the introduction of new production methods into a semi-domestic
industry had cut prices to a point at which the hand stocking knitters found it
almost impossible to make a living. Machine wrecking took place also in many
other towns. Every method of repression, including military violence, was used
by the government to suppress the Luddite riots.
In 1819 huge meetings were held all over the
North and Midlands, demanding Parliamentary Reform and the repeal of the Corn
Laws. One such meeting was held at St. Peter's Fields, Manchester, on August
16th, when 80,000 people assembled to hear a well-known radical speaker Hunt.
When Hunt began to speak he was arrested and the yeomanry suddenly charged into
the crowd, hacking blindly with their sabres in all directions.
In a few minutes eleven people were killed and
about 400, including over 100 women, were wounded. The brutality of this attack
on a peaceful crowd, and the callousness with which it was defended by the
government, made the necessity for Reform clearer than ever to the industrial
workers, and at the same time convinced many of the middle class that Reform
was the only alternative to a policy of repression that would lead unevitably
to civil war. From this time Parliamentary Reform began to be
"respectable" and to appear prominently on the programme of the
Whigs. But the immediate result of the "Peterloo Massacre" was a
tightening of the repression. Hunt and other radicals were arrested and imprisoned.
Some of them were forced to seek a temporary refuge in America.
In November 1819, the "Six Acts"
were passed by Parliament. These Acts made organized legal agitation for Reform
more difficult. They gave the local authorities powers to prevent meetings of more
than fifty persons and to search private houses where they suspected arms were
hidden. They forbade any kind of processions with bands or banners. They made
publishers of "blasphemous and seditious libels" liable to
imprisonment or transportation and placed a tax on all newspapers and
pamphlets. The object of this was to make radical papers too dear for most part
of the population.
The "Six Acts" of 1819 were followed
by a temporary diminution of Radical agitation. For this they were perhaps
less responsible than the revival of industry that began in 1820 and continued
up to the boom year of 1826. Such a revival was inevitable once the effects of
the war had passed, because British industry really had a world monopoly at
this time. Manufacturers liked to talk about foreign competition but actually
no other country had any considerable large-scale industry or any surplus of
manufactured goods for export. France and the United States were just beginning
to develop a cotton textile industry, but even by 1833 their combined output
was only two-thirds of that of Britain. In mining and the iron and steel
industries British supremacy was equally marked.
Exports increased from £48,000,000 in
1820 to £56,000,000 in 1825 and imports from £32,000,000 to
£44,000,000. But this was only one side of the expansion. The same
period was marked by the steady decline of the British small-scale and
domestic industry before the competition of the factories. The decline of
domestic industries was uneven, taking place in the cotton before the linen and
woolen industries, in spinning before weaving and in East Anglia and the West
Country before the North and Midlands. It was not completed before the 1840's,
and was the cause of the most widespread and prolonged suffering. But it divided
the working classes into sections with different interests and wrongs, and
forced those who were the worst sufferers into futile and objectively
reactionary forms of protest.
Economic distress quickly led to a demand for
Parliamentary Reform. The agitation for Reform was more widespread and
dangerous than ever before, though Reform meant quite different things to
different classes.
The character of Parliament, the classes which
dominated it, the methods by which elections were carried out, its
unrepresentative nature and the accompanying system of sinecures and jobbery
in the first decades of the 19th century differed in no fundamental respect
from that prevailing a century before. A few sinecures had been abolished and
corruption was forced by the growth of criticism to be a little more discreet,
but these gains were more than outweighed by two changes for the worse.
The growth of population since 1760, and the
changed distribution of that population, had made the members of Parliament
even less representative. Great new towns had sprung up which returned no members:
these included Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds and Sheffield. Many of the old
boroughs had remained small or had even declined in population.
The members did not represent the bulk of the
inhabitants of the places for which they sat. At the same time the industrial
areas were almost disfranchised as compared with the rural areas and small but
old market towns dominated by local gentry. And, second, the class of 40
shilling freeholders in whom the county franchise was vested had been almost
swept out of existence by the enclosures. The class of yeomen disappeared, the
electors were mainly the landowners.
The Reform Bill had really two sides. One
regularized the franchise, giving the vote to tenant farmers in the counties
(and thereby increasing the influence of the landowners in these
constituencies) and to the town middle class. In a number of boroughs the right
to vote was actually taken from a large number of people who previously
exercised it. About this side of the Bill the working class was naturally
unenthusiastic, but it was carefully kept in the background while a furious
campaign was worked up against the rotten boroughs.
The most popular part of the Bill was that
which swept away the rotten boroughs and transferred their members to the
industrial towns and the counties. Fifty-six boroughs lost both their members
and thirty more lost one. Forty-two new constituencies were created in London
and other large towns and sixty-five new members were given to the counties.
Most of the workers believed that once the old
system of graft and borough-mongering was swept away they could count on an
immediate improvement in their conditions. Hence the enthusiasm aroused by the
Reform Bill and hence their speedy and complete disillusionment afterwards.
The Bill passed into law on June 7th, 1832. It
increased the electorate only from 220,000 to 670,000 in a population of
14,000,000, but its other consequences can hardly be exaggerated.
First, by placing political power in the hands of the
industrial capitalists and their middle class followers it created a mass
basis for the Liberal Party which dominated politics throughout the middle of
the 19th century. From this time some of the towns of the industrial North
began to send Radical members to Parliament, and a definite political group
began to form to the left of the liberals, sometimes cooperating with them, but
frequently taking an independent political line. There was always a group of
members which supported the demands of the Chartists in the House of Commons.
In the fifty-five years between 1830 and 1885
there were nine Whig and Liberal governments that held office for a total of
roughly forty-one years: in the same period six Tory governments had only
fourteen years of office.
Second, the Reform Bill altered the political
balance between the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Crown. The
Commons gained at the expense of the Lords because they were now able to claim
to be the representatives of the people against a clique of aristocrats. The
abolition of the rotten boroughs also robbed the peers of much of their power
to control the composition of the Lower House. For the same reason the Crown
lost the last of its means of direct interference in Parliamentary politics.
From this time the influence of the Crown, though often considerable, had to
be exercised secretly, through its private contacts with politicians.
The third consequence of passing of the Reform
Bill was unintended and indirect. The workers who had done most of the fighting
soon realized that they had been excluded from all the benefits, and the Poor
Law Act of 1834 convinced them that the Government was indifferent to their
needs. It is not accidental that the years immediately after 1832 were marked
by a disgusted turning away of the masses from parliamentary politics to
revolutionary Trade Unionism, or that they proceeded to build up in the
Chartist Movement the first independent political party of the working class.
4. The Poor Law of 1834
By the 19th century, Britain had become an industrial
nation. The population of the country increased, as well as the number of poor
people. For a generation the hand weavers and petty craftsmen had fought
desperately to escape the factories. Year by year their incomes had fallen till
a man could not hope to earn more than five or six shillings for a full working
week. Even with the help of the existing Poor Law grants that was not enough to
make ends meet. The weavers, as well as the unemployed and casually unemployed
farm labourers starved.
According to the Poor Law remaining in force,
people who could not help being poor could be given money or go to a workhouse
run by a parish. In the early 19th century most of the parishes were too poor
to take care of the ever-increasing amount of the poor. The British society
faced a serious social problem. Something was to be done, and in 1834 the old
Poor Law was amended.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 stated that
no one fit to work was to receive money at home. Parishes were grouped into
"unions", and each union had to have a workhouse, and pay for it out
of the rates. The principle of the new Poor Law was simple: every person in
need of relief must receive it inside a workhouse. Workhouses had been places
mainly for the reception of the aged, the disabled, of children and of all
those too helpless and too defenceless to avoid being put there. In 1834 they
became the only alternative to starvation for the poor.
The condition of a pauper in a workhouse was
to be "less eligible" than that of the least prosperous workers
outside. In the sinister language of the Poor Law Commission of 1834, the
able-bodied inmate must be "subjected to such courses of labour and
discipline as will repel the indolent and vicious". At a time when
millions of people were on the verge of starvation, this object could only be
achieved by making the workhouse the home of meanness and cruelty. Families
were divided, food was poor and scanty and the tasks imposed were hard and
boring, oakum picking and stone breaking being among the most common.
The administration of the Act was deliberately
removed as far as possible from popular control by the appointment of three
Commissioners who became the most detested men in England. People dreaded the
workhouse and tried to protest. In some places workhouses were stormed and
burnt after fierce clashes between people and troops. In many of the northern
towns it was ten years or more before a workhouse was built. The mass
agitation, however, died about 1840 and the Poor Law was put in force both in
the rural and industrial areas.
5. The Corn Laws
The object of the Corn Laws of 1815 was to keep
the price of wheat at the famine level it had reached during the Napoleonic
Wars, when supplies from Poland and France were prevented from reaching England.
All wheat imports were forbidden when the price fell below 50 s. the quarter.
From the beginning the Corn Laws were hated by
everyone except the landowners and farmers, and even the latter found that in
practice the fluctuation in wheat prices was ruinously violent and that the
market was often manipulated so as to rob them of the profit they might have
expected to make.
Attempts in 1828 and 1842 to improve the Corn
Laws by introducing a sliding scale were not successful. Opposition to the
Corn Laws, coupled with demands for Parliamentary Reform, were widespread, but
died down after 1820 to be revived again by the coming of industrial depression
of 1837. This time it was an agitation not so much of the mass of the people as
of the industrial bourgeoisie anxious to reduce labour costs.
In the light of this continued pressure,
combined with the plain fact that the growth of population was making it
impossible for England to feed herself, the hesitating steps were taken towards
Free Trade after 1841.
The first of these steps was dictated by the
confused finance. Many tariffs and duties were swept away and replaced by an
income tax which was both simpler and more productive, and in the long run
less burdensome upon industry. The effect of these tariffs disappearance was to
leave the Corn Laws as an isolated anomaly, increasingly conspicuous and
increasingly difficult to defend.
Sir Robert Peel, who was Prime Minister then,
made a thorough study of the situation and realized that the belief common
among landowners that vast stores of wheat were lying in the Baltic granaries
ready to be poured into England was a pure fantasy. He knew that the surplus of
corn for export in any country was still small and that the most the repeal of
the Corn Laws would do would be to prevent an otherwise inevitable rise in
prices which might have had revolutionary consequences. He managed to force
through the repeal against the will of the majority of his own supporters in
June 1846.
6.
The Railway Age
The 18th century was a boom time for building roads. At
the beginning of the century it
took over three days to make the journey
from London to Exeter or Manchester. By the end of the century the same
journey took about 24 hours by coach. That became
possible thanks to the network of new roads built by privately owned Turnpike
Trusts. Until the beginning of the 19th century, however, British roads were
still poor. They were badly rutted and became practically impassable in wet
weather. Around the turn of the century engineers Thomas Telford and John
McAd-am devised methods of building uniform, smooth, and durable roadbeds on
which heavy goods could be carried in carts and wagons without destroying the
roads. But still barges remained best for transporting heavy goods, and towards
the end of the 18th century engineers constructed a system of canals that
linked the larger rivers.
Water transport was rather slow, greater speeds
were demanded. The idea of railway emerged as a result of the development of
steam locomotives, but building locomotives and rail systems was so expensive
that railroads were not widely used in Britain until the 1830's.
The first practical locomotive was constructed
in England in 1804 by Richard Trevithick. It had smooth wheels operating on
smooth metal rails. At first the railway was looked on mainly as a means of
carrying goods, but it was soon discovered that the steam engine was capable
of far higher speeds than had been imagined and that it could carry passengers
more quickly and more cheaply than the stage coach.
After the successful trials of the Trevithick locomotive, a number of
moderately successful locomotives were built in England, primarily for use in
mining. In 1823 the Stockton-Darlington Railway was
opened. In 1829 the much more important line connecting Manchester and
Liverpool came into existence. It was not until 1829 that a locomotive was
developed for use in a railway carrying both passengers and cargo. In that
year The Rocket, a locomotive designed by the British engineer George
Stephenson, won a competition sponsored by the Liverpool and Manchester
Railroad.
The Rocket pulled a load of three times its
own weight at a speed of 20 km/hr and hauled a coach filled with passengers at
39 km/hr. This performance stimulated the building of other locomotives and
the extension of railroad lines. Investors saw railroads as a profit-making
venture and poured vast amounts of capital into building rail systems throughout
the nation.
A regular fever of railway building,
accompanied by a speculation boom and much gambling in stocks and land values,
set in. In the years 1834-1836 about £10,000,000 was raised for railway
construction. First in the industrial areas, then on the main routes radiating
from London and then on the minor branches, thousands of miles of track were
laid down.
Much of the capital expended on these works
brought in no immediate profit, and in 1845 there was a severe crisis extending
to many branches of industry and affecting a number of the banks. This crisis
soon passed, being rather the result of speculative optimism than of any real
instability of the railway companies, and was followed by the new outburst of
building.
The railway building marked the beginning of
a tremendous increase in all branches of heavy industry, especially in such
key industries as coal mining and iron. The output of pig iron was 678,000 tons
in 1830; in 1852 it was 2,701,000 tons. Coal output rose from 10,000,000 tons
in 1800 to 100,000,000 tons in 1865.
Britain was the first country to create a
railway system. It also started to build railways in countries all over the
world, which proved to be a very profitable business. Railroads played an
especially important role in the colonial and semi-colonial countries that had
not a sufficiently dense population or money enough to build for themselves.
Such railroads were usually not only built by British contractors but financed
by loans raised in London.
The immediate internal effect of the railway
boom was to create a large demand for labour, both directly for railway
construction and indirectly in the coal mining, iron and steel and other
industries. In the second place, the railways made it much easier for workers
to get from place to place, to leave the villages and find a factory town where
work was to be had.
In 1801, 20 per cent of Britain's people
lived in towns. By the end of the 19th century, it was 75 per cent. London
especially was like a great octopus with its tentacles reaching out into the
surrounding country. Life in the slums of big cities was grim. Although the
population as a whole was going up, more children died in the cities than
anywhere else. But rail travel made it easier for the better-off to get to
work. So suburbs grew up on the edge of towns, with better and bigger houses,
trees and gardens.
7. Factory Legislation
In the earliest stages of the Industrial Revolution, when machinery was crude,
soon obsolete and worked by the uncertain and irregular power of water, factory
owners were determined to get the fullest possible use out of this machinery in
the shortest possible time. Hours of work rose to
sixteen and even eighteen a day. In this way the greatest output could be
obtained with the least outlay of capital.
When the facts about factory conditions became
generally known they shocked the most part of the early nineteenth century
Englishmen, and agitation for the prohibition of some of the worst abuses was
started.
As early as 1800-1815, in the years during
which he managed the New Lanark mills, Robert Owen had shown that output was
not in direct proportion to the number of hours worked, and that it was
possible to work a 10 1/2 hour day, to do without the labour of very young
children, and yet to make substantial profits. With the development of faster,
more accurate, more powerful, and more costly machines and with the substitution
of steam power for water power, the advantages from a very long working day
became less. It was always the water power mills where hours and conditions
were the worst and whose owners put up the most stubborn opposition to any kind
of change.
More capital was sunk in machinery, and the
relation between the capital so used and the capital used for the payment of
wages gradually changed. The amount of actual manual labour needed to produce a
given article decreased, and at the same time the speed at which the new
machinery would work became increasingly greater than the speed at which men
could work for a day lasting for sixteen or eighteen hours. It became less
economical to work the machine at part speed over a long day than at full speed
over a shorter one.
The first legislation, passed in 1802, was a very mild act to prevent some of
the worst abuses connected with the employment of pauper children. It was
followed by the Cotton Factories Regulation Act of 1819 which forbade the
employment of children under nine in cotton factories
and limited the hours of those between nine and sixteen to 13 1/2. As no
machinery was ever provided for the enforcement of this Act it remained a dead
letter.
It was not till 1833, after the passing of
the Reform Bill and under pressure of the workers that an effective Act was
passed. This prohibited the employment of children under nine except in silk
factories, limited the hours of older children and provided a number of
inspectors to see that these restrictions were carried out.