The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

     Plan

  The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

  English language

  British culture

  Geographical location

  Climate in Britain

  Political system

  Cities in Britain

  Work and unemployment

  Mass media

  Literature

  Science

  Education in Britain

  Health in the UK

  Sports in Britain

  Ecological problems

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

The full name of the country the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It consists of four parts: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland occupies one third of the island of Ireland. It borders on the Irish Republic in the south. The island of Great Britain consists of three main parts: England (the southern and middle part of the island), Wales (a mountainous peninsula in the West) and Scotland (the northern part of the island).

England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities, such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.

Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of the UK. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the Highlands and islands. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle.

Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and coal-mining area in the south.

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, and Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the capital, Belfast. . The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and the Catholics.

In general the territory of the UK is about 244,000 square kilometers, it takes the 75^th place among other countries in the world. The population is urban. The capital of the country is London. Now Great Britain is separated from the continent by the English Channel, the narrowest part of which is called the Strait of Dover. The British Isles are surrounded by the shallow waters of the Irish Sea and the North Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. The rivers of the region are short and of no great importance as waterways. The longest of them is "the Father of London", the Thames, which is a little over 200 miles. The surface of GB varies greatly. The northern and western parts of the country are mountainous and are called the Highlands. But there are no high mountains in Great Britain. In the north the Cheviots separate England from Scotland, the Pennies stretch down North England along its middle, the Cambrian Mountains occupy the greater part of Wales and the Highlands of Scotland   are the tallest of the British mountains. All the rest (south, east and centre) is a vast plain, which is called the Lowlands.

The mountains, the Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the climate of GB. So due to the geographic location of Great Britain the type of the climate is oceanic. There are no extreme contrasts in temperature in Britain because of the current of warm water flowing from the Gulf of Mexico called the Gulf Stream. Fortunately, as Britain does not experience extreme weather conditions, it is never very cold or very hot. The temperature rarely rises above 32C (90°F) in summer, or falls below -10°C (l4°F) in winter. The prevailing winds from the ocean to the south-west bring rainfall throughout the year.

Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. It is known as one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of iron and steel products, machinery and electronics, chemicals and textile, aircraft and navigation equipment. One of the chief industries of the country is shipbuilding. 7 per cent of the population is engaged in farming. GB is a country with old cultural traditions and customs. The most famous educational centers are Oxford and Cambridge universities. They are considered to be the intellectual centers of Europe. The education is not free, it is very expensive. All state schools in Britain are free, and schools provide their pupils with books and equipment for their studies. Nine million children attend 35.000 schools in Britain. Education is compulsory from 5 till 16 years. Children start primer school at 5 and continue until they are 11. Most children are taught together, boys and girls in the same class. At 11 most pupils go to secondary schools called comprehensives which accept a wide range of children from all backgrounds and religious and ethnic groups. At 16 pupils take a national exam called "GCSE" (General Certificate of Secondary Education) and then they can leave school if they wish. This is the end of compulsory education.  Seven per cent of British schoolchildren go to private schools called independent schools. Parents pay for these schools. Some 16-year-olds continue their studies in the sixth form at school or at a sixth form college. . Universities and colleges of higher education accept students with "A" levels from 18. . Most students graduate at 21 or 22 and are given their degree at a special graduation ceremony.  

The United Kingdom is a monarchy and the Queen is the head of the state. But in practice it is ruled by the elected government with a Prime Minister at the head. The British Parliament consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It sits in the House of Parliament in Westminster.

There are three main political parties in Great Britain: the Labour, the Conservative and the Liberal parties. The Labour party with Antony Blair at the head is the ruling party nowadays. There’s no written constitution in Great Britain only precedents and traditions.

English language 

On the 5th of September 1977, the American spacecraft Voyager One blasted off on its historic mission to Jupiter and beyond. On board the scientists who knew that Voyager would one day spin through distant star systems had installed a recorded greeting from the people of the planet Earth. A brief message in fifty-five different languages for the people of outer space plays a statement from the Secretary-General of the United Nations an Austrian named Kurt Waldheim, speaking on behalf of 147 member states in English. The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain nearly two thousand years ago, English did not exist. Today English is used by at least 750 million people, and barely half of those speak it as a mother tongue.

Some estimates have put that figure closer to one billion. Whatever (he total, English at the end of the 20th century is more widely spoken and written, than any other language has ever been. It has become the language of the planet, the first truly global language. Three-quarters of the world's mail, and its telexes and cables, are in English. So are more than half the world's technical and scientific periodicals: it is the language of technology from Silicon Valley to Shanghai. English is the medium for 80 per cent of the information stored in the world's computers. Nearly half of all business deals in Europe are conducted in English. It is the language of sports and glamour: the official language of the Olympics and the Miss Universe Competition. English is the official voice of (he air and the sea, and of Christianity: it is the ecumenical language of the World Council of Churches. The largest broadcasting companies in the world (CBS, NBS, ABC, BBC) transmit in English to audiences that regularly exceed one hundred million.

English is spoken practically all over the world. It is spoken as the mother tongue in Great Britain, the United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. A lot of people speak English in China, Japan, India, Africa and other countries. It is one of 6 official languages of the United Nations. It is studied as a foreign language in many schools. England's history helps to understand the present condition of English. Many English words were borrowed from the language of Angles and Saxons. Hundreds of French words came into English. These French words didn't crowd out corresponding Anglo-Saxon words. There exist «act» and «deed», «beautiful» and «pretty», «form» and «shape». Many new words were brought by traders and travellers. These words came from all parts of the world: «umbrella» —from Italian, «skates» — from Datch, «tea» — from Chinese, «cigar» — from Spanish. Some words came into English directly from Latin, which was the language of the church and the universities in the Middle Ages. Some of the English words of today are derivatives. One way of creating new words is to put together two or more older

English words. For example, the words «railway», «football», “newspaper” are made in this way. Many of the new English words — especial new scientific

ones — have been made from Latin and Greek words instead of English ones. «Telephone» for instance, was made from Greek words “far” and «talk».  

Culture

As long as there is peace and prosperity people will travel.

Broadly speaking, there are tourists and there are travelers. The first see a holiday as s chance to switch off the brain and mindlessly follow a guidebook, or to park their bodies on the sand between clear water and fine restaurant. The second see things differently. They travel to learn, to discover a new pleasure or to exercise the imagination. The world is filled with wonderful places to explore, fascinating people to meet and opportunities to pursue.

Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the past. The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city is originated. About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation church. Liverpool, the «city of ships», is England's second greatest port, ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its School of Tropical Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it's the home town of "The Beatles". Stratford-on-Avon lies 93 miles north-west of London. Shakespeare was born here in 1564, and here he died in 1616.    Cambridge and Oxford Universities are famous centers of learning.                                               Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably built by Druids, members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel  Castle is King Arthur's reputed birthplace. Canterbury Cathedral    is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, head of the Church  of England.                                                  The British Museum is the largest and richest museum in the  world. It was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world's   richest collections of antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some parts of Athens' Parthenon are in the Greek section. Madam Tussaud's Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started by Madam Tussaud, a French modeller in wax, in the 18 century. Here you can meet Marilyn Monroe, Eiton John, Picasso, the Royal Family, the Beatles and many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.

Traditionally English people have three meals a day: breakfast, lunch and dinner. Breakfast is served in the morning. It used to be a large meal with cereal, eggs and bacon, sausages, tomatoes. But such a large breakfast takes a long time to prepare and is not very healthy. Nowadays, Britain's most popular breakfast consists of cereal, toast with marmalade, juice and yogurt with a cup of tea or

coffee. Lunch is a light meal. Most people have no time to go back home for lunch so they eat at school, cafes, pubs or restaurants. The main meal is dinner, which is usually between 6 and 7 p.m. A typical evening meal is a meat dish with vegetables and dessert. The most important meal of the week is the Sunday dinner, which is usually eaten at 1 p.m. The traditional Sunday dish used to be roast beef, but nowadays pork, chicken or lamb are more common. On Sunday evenings people have supper or high tea. The famous British afternoon tea is becoming rare, except at weekends. Some people criticize English food. They say it's unimaginable, boring, tasteless, it's chips with everything and totally overcooked vegetables. The basic ingredients, when fresh, are so full of flavour that British haven't had to invent sauces to disguise their natural taste. What can compare with fresh pees or new potatoes just boiled and served with butter? Why drown spring lamb in wine or cream and spices, when with just one or two herbs it is absolutely delicious? If you ask foreigners to name some typically English dishes, they will probably say «Fish and chips» then stop. It is disappointing, but true that, there is no tradition in England of eating in restaurants, because the food doesn't lend itself to such preparation. English cooking is found at home. So it is difficult to find a good English restaurant with reasonable prices. In most cities in Britain you'll find Indian, Chinese, French and Italian restaurants. In London you'll also find Indonesian, Mexican, and Greek... Cynics will say that this is because English have no «cuisine» themselves, but this is not quite the true.

You can reach England either by plane, by train, by car or by ship. The fastest way is by plane. London has three international airports: Heathrow, the largest, connected to the city by underground; Gatwick, south of London, with a frequent train service; Luton, the smallest, used for charter flights if you go to England by train or by car you have to cross the Channel. There is a frequent service of steamers and ferryboats which connect the continent to the south-east of England. People in Britain drive on the left and generally overtake on the right. The speed limit is 30 miles per hour (50 km/h) in towns and cities.      When you are in London you can choose from four different means of transport: bus, train, underground or taxi. The typical bus in London is a red double-decker. The first London bus started running between Paddington and the City in 1829. It carried 40 passengers and cost a shilling for six km. The next to arrive were the trains; now there are twelve railway stations in London. The world's first underground line was opened between Baker St. and the City in 1863. Now there are ten underground lines and 273 underground stations in use. The London underground is also called the Tube, because of the circular shape of its deep tunnels. London is so large that visitors must learn to use buses and the underground to get about. London taxis are too expensive for any but the rich. You can get a map of the underground and the bus routes at any ticket office. The word "Underground" across a large circle shows you where the stations are. The London underground is called the "tube". Bus stops are marked clearly. In the suburbs buses do not stop unless there are passengers who wish to get on or off. These stops are marked "Request Steps". Inside some buses you will see the notice: "Please, state your destination clearly and have the exact fare ready." It is easy enough to tell the conductor where you want to go to, but not always possible to have the exact fare. The conductor will always give you the change. The London buses are very large. They have scats both upstairs and downstairs. English children like to sit on the front seats of a big London bus. They can see everything that is happening in the streets. Here are some of the things you may hear off a bus in London:

 "Fares, please."

"Four pence, please."

"Full up inside; plenty of seats on top."

"Standing room only."

"No, sir, this bus does not go to Victoria Station."

"You want a number 11."

"No more seats on top; five seats inside."

In Great Britain traffic keeps to the left. Motor-cars, buses and cyclists must all keep to the left side of the road. In most other countries traffic keeps to the right. There is heavy traffic in London and you must observe traffic rules.

William Turner, a great romantic English landscape painter. Was born in Devonshire in 1775. He lived with his uncle in Middlesex, where he began to attend school. His first drawings are dated 1787. When he was only twelve years of age. His childish sketch-books, filled with drawings, are still preserved in the British Museum. When he was 21, he began to exhibit oil paintings as well as water-colours at the Royal Academy. The first, «Fishermen at Sea» is now in the Gate Gallery. He traveled much in France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy But he never lost his interest in his own country. As a landscape painter Turner was interested mainly in light and colour effects. One of his famous paintings is even called «Light and Colour». His work is high praised by great critics. Turner died in London in 1851. His pictures and drawings became the property of the British nation. William Turner is considered to be one of the world greatest painters.

Geographical location

The full name of the country the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland occupies one third of the island of Ireland. It borders on the Irish Republic in the south. The island of Great Britain consists of three main parts: England (the southern and middle part of the island), Wales (a mountainous peninsula in the West) and Scotland (the northern part of the island). There are no high mountains in Great Britain. In the north the Cheviots separate England from Scotland, the Pennies stretch down North England along its middle, the Cambrian Mountains occupy the greater part of Wales and the Highlands of Scotland   are the tallest of the British mountains. There is very little flat country except in the region known as East Anglia. Most of the rivers flow into the North Sea. The Thames is the deepest and the longest of the British rivers. Some of the British greatest ports are situated in the estuaries of the Thames, Mersey, Trent, Tyne, Clyde and Bristol Avon. Great Britain is not very rich in mineral resources; it has some deposits of coal and iron ore and vast deposits of oil and gas that were discovered in the North Sea. The warm currents of the Atlantic Ocean influence the climate of Great Britain. Winters are not severely cold and summers are rarely hot.

The United Kingdom is situated on the group of islands lying just off the mainland of north-western Europe. The British Isles include Great Britain, Ireland and a number of smaller islands. The total area of the British Isles is 325 000 square km. Many ages ago the British Isles formed a part of the continent. The rocky highlands of Scotland, for example, resemble the Norwegian coast. Another evidence that the islands were the part of the continent is the shallow ness of the water between them and the mainland.                                           Now Great Britain is separated from the continent by the   English Channel, the narrowest part of which is called the Strait of Dover. The British Isles are surrounded by the shallow waters of the Irish Sea and the North Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. There are wild desolate mountains in the northern Highlands of Scotland The Pennine Range in northern England and the Cambrian Mountains in Wales are much lower. The rivers of the region are short and of no great importance as waterways. The longest of them is "the Father of London", the Thames, which is a little over 200 miles. Britain's principal ports are London, Liverpool, Manchester and Glasgow. They have splendid harbours, for the coast line is very indented. Owing to the shape of the country, any point in Great Britain is no more than 70 miles from the sea.

England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities, such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting cities such as York, Chester. Oxford and Cambridge. Stonehenge is one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world. This ancient circle of stones stands in Southwest England. It measures 80 metres across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four metres high. Why it was built is a mystery. Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England Chester is very important town in the north-west of England. In the past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra, meaning «fortified camp», In Chester there is a famous museum which contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys. Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was built during the reign of Henry VIII and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford. Cambridge is the home of Britain's second oldest university York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was built by Romans, conquered by Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the «City of 1500 trades» because of the great variety of its industries.

Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of the UK. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the Highlands and islands. A lot of places in Scotland are a natural paradise, still untouched by man. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle. Glasgow is the industrial capital of Scotland. It is the third largest city in Great Britain. The typical products of Scotland are timber, whisky, salmon. Golf is the Scottish natural sport and it seems to have originated in this country. Scotland is also the land of myths and mysteries; every castle has its ghost. Glamis Castle is said to have nine of them. And of course everyone knows about the Loch Ness Monster. «Nessie» is said to be about six meters long, with a long, thin neck. The first report of the monster in Loch Ness was in 565 A.D. Since 1934 thousands of people claimed to they had seen the monster. Scientists have investigated the Loch and taken pictures but no scientific explanation of the mystery has been given.

Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and coal-mining area in the south. The landscape is beautiful. Many English people move to Wales when they retire. Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales in 1955, mainly because of its size. Since 1536, Wales has been governed by England and the heir to the throne of England has the title of Prince of Wales, but Welsh people have strong sense of identity. There is a Welsh National party which wants independence from the United Kingdom and the Welsh language is still used in certain parts of the country. Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, similar to Breton, spoken in Brittany, France. In the 60's Welsh was given equal status with English as an official language and is used in the law courts. It is taught in school and some TV programs are broadcast in Welsh. However, only about 20% of the population speaks Welsh.

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, and Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the capital, Belfast. Belfast is also the most important port and commercial and industrial centre. Some parts of the territory, those that are not close to the capital, have remained mainly rural. The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and the Catholics. The Protestants are of British origin. They are descendants of British settlers who came to Ireland in the XVIth and XVIIth centuries, during and after the Reformation. The Catholics are mostly natives of Ireland. The Protestants were the majority and dominated the Catholics with strong discrimination. In 1968 the Catholics began the movement for equal civil rights. The fightings between the two groups of the population continue to this day. Northern Ireland has a strong cultural tradition: songs, dances, literature and festivals. It has its own Art Council, and there are orchestras, theatres, ballet and opera companies.

London

As well as being the capital of England, London is the capital of the United Kingdom. London was founded by the Romans in 43 A.D. and was called Londinium. In 61 A.D. the town was burnt down and when it was rebuilt by the Romans it was surrounded by a wall. That area within the wall is now called the City of London. It is London's commercial and business centre. It contains the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange and the head offices of numerous companies and corporations. Here is situated the Tower of London. The Tower was built by William the Conqueror who conquered England in 1066. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey. Now most of the Government buildings are located there. During the Tudor period (l6th century) London became an important economic and financial centre. The Londoners of the Elizabethan period built the first theatres. Nowadays the theatre land is stretched around Piccadilly Circus. Not far from it one can see the British Museum and the Covent Garden Opera House. During the Victorian period (19th century) London was one of the most important centers of the Industrial Revolution and the centre of the British Empire. Today London is a great political centre, a great commercial centre, a paradise for theatre-goers and tourists, but it is also a very quiet place with its parks and its ancient buildings, museums and libraries.

Climate in the UK

The common ideas people have about the weather in Britain are: "It rains all the time, it's very damp"; "There's a terrible fog in London, just like in Sherlok Holmes'...", 'The sun never shines in July or August". Britain has a variable climate. The weather changes so frequently that it is difficult to forecast. It is not unusual for people to complain that the weathermen were wrong. Fortunately, as Britain does not experience extreme weather conditions, it is never very cold or very hot. The temperature rarely rises above 32C (90°F) in summer, or falls below 10°C (l4°F) in winter. Summers are generally cool, but due to global warming they are starting drier and hotter. Newspapers during a hot spell talk of "heatwaves" and an "Indian summer" (dry, hot weather in September and October). Hot weather causes terrible congestion on the roads as Britons rush to the coastal resorts. Winters are generally mild, with the most frequent and prolonged snowfalls in the Scottish Highlands where it is possible to go skiing. If it does snow heavily in other parts of Britain, the country often comes to a standstill. Trains, buses and planes are late. People enjoy discussing the snow, complaining about the cold and comparing, the weather conditions with previous winters. Contrary to popular opinion, it does not rain all the time. There is certainly steady rainfall throughout most of the year, but the months from September to January are the wettest. Thanks to the rain, Britain's countryside is famous for its deep green color. Since the 1950s, most British cities have introduced clean air zones. Factories and houses cannot burn coal and must use smokeless fuel. The dirt caused by smoke used to cause terrible fogs, particularly in London. Such fogs are now a thing of the past, but you can still see them in old films where they add mystery and atmosphere to murder stories and thrillers. Due to the geographic location of Great Britain the type of the climate is oceanic. There are no extreme contrasts in temperature in Britain because of the current of warm water flowing from the gulf of Mexico called the Gulf Stream. The prevailing winds from the ocean to the south-west bring rainfall throughout the year. The total national rainfall average is over 1100 mm annually. March to June tend to be a driest months, September to January the wettest. The rivers of the Great Britain are abundant, and they never freeze. The main rivers are the Thames, the Tyne, the Severn, the Mersey; the biggest lakes are the Loch Lomond, the Lough Neagh. A considerable area of land is covered by meadows and heaths. The grass remains green all the year round. Thanks to climate conditions, Britain in truth looks like one great well-ordered park with its old trees, green meadows and hedges.

The party which wins the most seats in the General Election forms the government in Britain. The leader of the winning party becomes Prime Minister. As leaders of their political parties and leaders of the country. Prime Ministers are powerful because they have the majority support in Parliament and they can choose their own ministers and government. The PM, chooses a committee of ministers called the Cabinet. This is made up of a selection of senior MPs from the House of Commons and some members of the House of Lords. Each member of the Cabinet is a minister responsible for a government department: for example, the Secretary of State for Education and Science is responsible for all the schools, universities and teachers in Britain. The Cabinet of ministers runs the country. The Cabinet meets at the Prime Minister's house 10 Downing Street. The cabinet works as a team and all ministers must accept the decisions of the "group". The team of ministers must always agree in public because they are collectively responsible for the decisions they make. If a minister cannot agree with all the others, he usually resigns from the cabinet. Cabinet meetings are held in private and the details must remain secret for at least 30 years. Margaret Thatcher tried to change this style of the Cabinet and was forced to resign when the other ministers could not agree with her. Cabinet ministers cannot, however, do as they please! They are responsible to Parliament and must answer questions from backbenchers from the House of Commons. Even the Prime Minister must answer questions every Tuesday and Thursday in the Commons — this is called Prime Minister's Question Time Everyone wants to know what has been decided behind the closed doors of the Cabinet Room.

Britain is administered from the Palace of Westminster in London. This is also known as the Houses of Parliament. Parliament is made up of two chambers — the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The members of the House of Lords are not elected: they qualify to sit in the House because they are bishops of the Church of England, aristocrats who have inherited their seats from their fathers, people with titles. There has been talk of reform in this century because many Britons think that this system is undemocratic. The House of Commons, by contrast, has 651 seats which are occupied by Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the British public. The United Kingdom is divided into constituencies, each of which has an elected MP in the House of Commons. Each of the major political parties appoints a representative (candidate) to compete for each seat. Smaller parties may have a candidate in only a few constituencies. There may be five or more parties, fighting for one seat, but only one person — the candidate who gets the greatest number of votes — can win. Some parties win a lot of seats and some win very few, or none at all. The Queen, who is the Head of State, opens and closes Parliament. All new laws are debated (discussed) by MPs in the, Commons, then debated in the Lords, and finally signed by the Queen. All three are part of Parliament in Britain.

Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first met in the 13th century. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws. In 1689 Mary 11 and William III became the first constitutional monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. Formally the monarch has a number of roles. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, and should not make political decisions. Nevertheless, the monarch still performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening and dissolving Parliament, signing bills passed by both Houses and fulfilling international duties as head of state. The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.

The House of Lords comprises about 1 200 peers. The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts as an advisory council for the House of Commons. As well as having legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal. The House of Commons consists of Members of Parliament who are elected by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies each of which elects one Member of Parliament. The Commons, therefore, has 650 Members of Parliament. The party which wins the most seats forms the Government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The functions of Commons are legislation and security of government activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker The government party sits on the Speaker's right while on his left sit the members of the Opposition.

Margaret Thatcher (Margaret Robins) was born in 1925. Her father had a grocers shop but he was also very interested in local politics. Margaret was a good student and won a schoolarship to Oxford to study chemistry .Then she worked as a research chemist until she met and married Denis Thatcher, a successful businessman. Then she decided to study law. She was already involved in politics and gave up law when she was elected to the Parliament in 1959. From 1970 to 1974 she was Secretary of State for Education. In 1975 she became leader of the Conservative Party which was the Opposition. In 1979 she heat the Labour Party and took office as Prime Minister, Britain's  first woman Prime Minister. Thatcher privatized publicly-owned industries and made cuts in state education, hospitals and welfare benefits. In early 1980's, Britain was facing unemployment, inflation, problems of Northern Ireland. In 1982, Britain became involved in an undeclared war against Argentina in the Falkland Islands. After the victory in the Falklands, she had an image of a strong, authoritative leader. In  the 1983 election campaign, she won with a large majority of votes. In 1987 she won her third term as Prime Minister defeating the Labour Party which suffered from loss of votes due to the newly formed alliance with Liberal.

On November 22, 1990, Mrs. Thatcher resigned. The “Iron Lady” who believed it was her destiny to reshape the British nation shed tears as she made the historic announcement. Three men were candidates for the post of Prime Minister. John Major was to win.

At present the British royal family is headed by Queen Elizabeth. When the Queen was born on the 21st of April 1926, her grandfather, King George V, was on the throne and her uncle   — was his heir. The death of her grandfather and the abdication of   ' her uncle brought her father to the throne as King George VI. As a child she studied constitutional history and law as well as art and music. In addition she learned to ride and acquired her enthusiasm for horses. As she grew older she began to take part in public life, making her first broadcast at the age of 14.

The marriage of the young Princess Elizabeth to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh took place in November 1947. She came to the throne after her father's death in 1952 and was crowned in Westminster Abbey in June 1953. Among Queen Elizabeth's many duties are the regular visits she makes to foreign countries, and especially those of the Commonwealth, whose interests and welfare are very important to her. The Queen has allowed the BBC to make a documentary film about the every day of the royal family. She also started the tradition of the "walkabout", an informal feature of an otherwise formal royal visit, when she walks among the public crowds and stops to talk to some people. The annual Christmas broadcast made by the Queen on radio and television has become a traditional and popular feature of the season, and there were widespread celebrations and special programmes of events in 1977 to mark her Silver Jubilee. The Queen's husband Duke of Edinburgh, was born in 1926 and served in the Royal Navy. He takes a great deal of interest in industry, in the achievements of young people (he founded Duke of Edinburgh's Award Scheme in 1956) and in saving raise wild animals from extinction. The Queen's heir is Charles, Prince of Wales, who was born in 1948, married Lady Diana Spencer and has two children, Prince William and Prince Harry. The Prince of Wales is well-known as a keen promoter of British interests. In recent years he has become outspoken on such controversial topics as modem architecture, violence in films and on television, and the standard of English teaching in schools. His wife Diana, Princess of Wales (often called in mass media Princess Di), won the affection of many people by her modesty, shyness and beauty. Unfortunately, she died in a car accident in August, 1997. The Queen's other children are Princess Anne (born in 1950), Prince Andrew (born in 1960) and Prince Edward (born in 1964). Anne, Princess Royal, has acquired a reputation for being arrogant, but in recent years has become quite popular with the general public. The Queen is widely known for her interest in horses and horse-racing. She is now president of the Save the Children Fund, Chancellor of the University of London and carries out many public engagements. Prince Andrew, Duke of York, served as a helicopter pilot in the Royal Navy. In 1986 he married Miss Sarah Ferguson (Fergie, for short) and has two daughters. Prince Edward is keen on the theatre. This interest began while he was at university. He quit the Royal Marines, and is now pursuing a career with a theatrical company. The Queen Mother, the widow of the late King George VI, celebrated her one hundred birthday in 2 000 and continues to carry out many public engagements. The Queen's only sister, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, is well-known for her charity work.

Diana – the People’s Princess

Diana Spencer was born on the first of July 1961 in Sandringham in England. She had two older sisters and a younger brother. In childhood she liked games, swimming, running and dancing. She wanted to become a dancer. Besides she loved children very much and at the age of sixteen she worked in schools for very young children. Diana became princess, when Prince Charles, the Queen's son, asked her to be his wife and they got married. They seemed to be a happy couple at first. They had two sons. They travelled a lot they worked a lot, they visited many countries together. But Diana was not quite happy because they did different things and Charles didn't understand her. Why was Diana the most famous, the most beautiful, the most photographed woman in the world? Why did she win the hearts of millions and millions of people in many countries? Why did so many people come to London to remember her when she died? Why did the car accident which took her life, become such a total shock to crowds of people? Why did people feel the need to be in London at the funeral? Why did the tears and love at the funeral move the world? The answer is so simple. Matthew Wall, a student at St. Michael's College in Burlington said: "She was such a lovely lady. She did so much for those people less fortunate that herself”. She was a kind woman. Hundreds of people talked about Diana's kindnesses. She liked ordinary people, though she was rich and had many rich friends. Wherever she was, she was always ready to lend a hand. She was devoted to the sick and the poor. She visited hospitals for people with AIDS and for lepers and wasn't afraid to touch them, talk to them, listen to them. She worked on children's charities, and had teamed up with Hillary Clinton in an effort to ban landmines. And it's not only money, that she wanted to give people. She wanted to give them a part other soul, to make them happy because she was unhappy herself. She wanted to give them love, because she needed love herself.                      

Rock stars (Sting, Elton John), pop singer George Michael, film stars and producers (Tom Hanks, Steven Spilberg, Nicole Kidman, Tom Cruise) and other famous people were among her friends. But she had more friends among ordinary people. Diana was seen many times in floods of tears, because of the pressures other loveless 15-year marriage. It is not a secret that Diana was hounded and humiliating to the point of mental breakdown and was able to pull through only because she knew she had the love of the people to buoy her in her darkest hours. She was, indeed, the People’s Princess.

Cities in Britain

Nobody can deny that Britain has a lot of enchanting, charming and fascinating cities that are very different. Some of them are medieval, walled and peaceful. These cities have a lot of trees, flowers so they are leafy.  For example Darlington is a small, remole and sleepy city with a population about 100000 people. It is rather far from London and hot coastal, so there are no big paints and manufactures. But I think that it is a great advantage. Because today plants pollute air and water, so the health of the people is changing for the worse. But also there are a lot of sprawling, overpopulated, manufacturing and fast-growing cities. I think living in them is a great torture. May be these cities are simply unworkable, undeserving of any praise, plagued by unemployment, city of impressive government building and expressways, but they are also centers of a high crime rade, lot of gambling establishments. Today new, gateway or big capital city can boast its modern apartment block of concrete and glass, enormous human and economic potential, magnificent architecture and numerous amusement parks equipped with video games and high-tech virtual reality attractions. The streets here are home to some striking contrast, because there cities are fast-changing. Also streets are promenades for residents and tourists, pickup artists and pickpockets, they are lined with small buy shops and coffee bars, pulse with energy and life and sometimes are lined with a double row of trees. It is true that these cities offer more than you can imagine. Nobody ca deny that a great example of these of these cities is London- capital of Great Britain. It grew up around the first point where the Roman invaders found the Thames narrow enough to build a bridge. They found a small Celtic settlement then known as Londinium and by A. D. 300 they had turned it into a sizeable port and an important trading centre. Over 8 million people live in London. The city dominates British life. It is the home of the nation's commerce and finance, the main centre of its legal system and the press. It has the largest university and the greatest possibilities for entertainment and for sport in the country. London is one of the most famous capital cities of the world, and every year it attracts crowds of visitors from home and abroad. They come to explore its historic buildings, to see its museums and galleries, its streets and parks, and its people. London is a city of great contrasts. Its western part is the richest part of the town with its cosy mansions, beautiful avenues, shops, restaurants and hotels. The East End is the district inhabited by the poor. Quite an army of people live from hand to mouth in its slums and miserable houses lining dreary narrow streets. Industry is chiefly found in that part of the city, grey with soot and smoke. The heart of London is the City — its commercial and business centre. Here is situated the Tower of London that comes     first among the historic buildings of the city. The River is the main approach to London from the east. 1000 years ago William the Conqueror decided to build a strong fortress to protect the City of London, which he had just conquered, The Tower of London was one of the first and most          impressive castles after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Since the times of William I various kings have built and extended the Tower of London and used it for many purposes. The Tower has been used as a royal palace, an observatory, an arsenal, a state prison, and many famous and infamous people have been executed within its walls. It is now a museum. For many visitors the principal attraction is the Crown Jewels, the finest precious stones of the nation. A fine collection of amour is exhibited in the Keep. The security of the Tower is ensured by a military garrison and by the Yeoman Warders or "Beefeaters" who still wear their picturesque Tudor uniform. St Paul's Cathedral,                                                                                                                                                                               the greatest of English churches, is situated not far from the Tower.  St. Paul's Cathedral has always dominated the centre of London. It stands on the site of former Saxon and Norman churches. The latter were destroyed in the Great Fire and the present building, completed in 1710, is the work of the eminent architect Sir Christopher Wren. It is an architectural masterpiece. Londoners have a particular affection for St. Paul's, which is the largest Protestant Church in England. Its high dome, containing the remarkable Whispering Gallery, is a prominent landmark towering above the multi-storeyed buildings which line the river-bank. Not far away, is Westminster, where most of the Government buildings are situated, is Westminster Abbey. Westminster Abbey is a national shrine where the kings and queens are crowned and famous people are buried. Founded by Edward the Confessor in 1050, the Abbey was a monastery for a long time. The present building dates largely from the time of Henry III who began to rebuild the church, a task which lasted nearly 300 years. The West towers were added in the eighteenth century Since William I almost every English monarch has been crowned in this great church, which contains the tombs and memorials of many of Britain’s most eminent citizens. One of the greatest treasures of the Abbey is the oaken Coronation Chair made in 1300. Near the West Door of the Abbey the Unknown Warrior lies in a simple grave commemorating the men who died in the First World War. The Abbey is also known for its Poets' Corner. Graves and memorials to many English poets and writers are clustered round about.  Walking around London one can also see and admire Trafalgar Square. Trafalgar Square is the natural centre of London. The square was so named to commemorate Nelson's Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, and the monument in the centre, known as Nelson's Column, is surmounted with a Statue of Nelson 16 feet high. The pedestal of the Column is decorated with bas-reliefs representing Nelson's most familiar victories. At the base of Nelson's Column are four lions. The square has now become a huge traffic island, the statues and fountains have enlivened the space so that it remains a place of pilgrimage for visitors. When the square is not used for demonstrations, it is full of visitors feeding the pigeons or watching the traffic. On the north side of the square are the National Gallery and the National Portrait Gallery. The National Gallery has an outstanding varied collection of paintings from British, Italian, Spanish, French, Dutch and other famous schools. It is an international, rather than, as it is named, a National Gallery.

 From the centre of Westminster Bridge, one can have a splendid view of the Houses of Parliament which spread magnificently by the north bank of the Thames. This structure is a remarkable example of Gothic architecture. The Clock Tower, which contains the hour-bell called "Big Ben", is known the world over.  AARoyal Palaces and houses were built along the banks of the Thames in medieval days. The Houses of Parliament, called officially the Palace of Westminster, were formerly a palace for kings and queens. The palace was used both as a royal residence and also as a parliament house until the sixteenth century In the course of the sixteenth century when the royal family moved to the new palace within half a mile of Westminster — Whitehall Palace, the Palace of Westminster was occupied by the Parliament and became its home. So the site of Westminster has been involved with the government of England for 500 years.

               London is one of the world's most enjoyable cities. Visited by tourists in the millions, the city offers them an astonishing variety of scenes. In this historic city the modern rubs shoulders with the old, the present is ever conscious of the past, the great and the small live side by side in mutual tolerance and respect and in every part of London's busy and complex life there is to be found a very genuine affection for her traditions, and her fortunes.London survived the Plague, which killed nearly 100.000 people and the Great Fire which followed. Little damage occurred during World War I, but World War II brought tremendous destruction. Many buildings of great historic value were laid in ruins and today the face of London is changed. Yet much was spared, including the Tower, St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Abbey. London has buildings that express all the different areas of its history, for London manages in a unique way to reflect its past and at the same time to fulfil the functions of a modern city. There is always something new to be [discovered, some fresh approach to a familiar scene, some curious piece of history to be investigated.

     The great problem of all big cities is overcrowding, because they are overpopulated. Overcrowding leads to the traffic jams. So most of the famous cities are smoky. But nevertheless cities are full of charm and vitality and comfortable place to live in. It would be right to say, that living in cities gives much more opportunities, that living in the country.

Work and unemployment

Like every developed country the United Kingdom has a problem of unemployment and finding a job there is no such thing as a job life any more. There are a lot of interesting professions in the world, but nevertheless many young men start down a false path to their true destiny. There is no doubt that choosing the right job is one of the most critical decisions you’ll ever make in your life. For many people their future seems cloudy and they don’t mind hard physical job. Others have a very clear idea of what they want. They find the right job that involves theirs best subject and gives opportunities to expand their horizons culturally. I think that there are some of the most attractive aspects of a profession, that insist on taking it: good pay, responsibility, a pleasant place to work, quite short working day, maternity leave, long holydays and opportunities for promotion. As you know the ticket to long-lasting success in the modern world is higher education, but it is very expensive, so not every man have an opportunity to have a lucrative and enviable job. These people are forced to spend their life in a job they hate. But a lot of people don’t have any job at all, they are unemployment. Even in UK this problem is taking place. I don’t think that to live people must earn their bread in the sweat of their brows and live hand to mouth. It is very humiliating. The most important and, career-track and solid professions are teacher, economist, doctor and political worker. These jobs require skills and responsibilities, are challenging enough, attract idealistic types only and of course pay a lot of money. For many people high earrings are more important than job satisfaction, so, I think, that person, who likes this job is rather soulless. His true to say that today the level of unemployment in UK is 3,1%. It is rather low, but not enough. 

Mass media

    Today people all over the world have much more television, than ever before and become a coach potato. Great Britain is a very developed country with very developed television. The British Media consists of the press and radio and TV broadcasting. There are too many mass media companies. The most famous TV company in the UK is BBC. It has a great number of correspondents. They seek out the news, publish sometimes damaging information, always want to be first with the latest news, shine light on a lot of dark places and even some correspondents, and dig into someone’s private life trying to come up with dirt. I can say, that the press sometimes goes too far, crossing the fine line between the public’s right to know, on the one hand, the right of the individuals to privacy and the right of the government to protect the national security, on the other hand, oversteps the bounds of its rights.

       The BBC is run in the interests of its viewers and listeners. Twelve governors act as trustees of the public interest and regulate the BBC. They are appointed by the Queen on advice from ministers.

Day-to-day BBC operations are run by 16 divisions. Their directors report to the director-general, forming the Executive Committee. It answers to the Board of Governors.

The BBC’s governors safeguard its independence, set its objectives and monitor its performance. They are accountable to its licence payers and Parliament, and publish an Annual Report assessing the BBC's performance against objectives.

BBC governors differ from directors of public companies, whose primary responsibilities are to shareholders and not consumers. BBC governors represent the public interest, notably the interests of viewers and listeners.

  Executive Committee

Runs the BBC in the public interest by:

Proposing key objectives

Developing strategy and policy in light of the set objectives

Operating all services within the strategic and policy framework

  Board of Governors

Ensures the BBC serves the public interest by:

Setting key objectives

Approving strategy and policy

Monitoring performance and compliance, and reporting on both in the Annual Report

Ensuring public accountability

Appointing the Director-General and other Executive Committee members and determining their remuneration

It is a great advantage for people to have television, because it informs the mind, changes human consciousness, analyses events that have gone down in history, brings events like the Olympic Games into millions of homes, but sometimes makes school dull and books less interesting. I think, that British TV companies prefer to show daily ten-minute snapshot of local crime, put too much political output, interview people live and show films made for TV. Unlike Russia and Belarus UK television doesn’t prefer to show many pornographic films. BBC has a lot of different programs and shows: nature, quiz, public-affair, art, hot news programs and on-air questions, gardening, modern shows. Also it has a lot of news programs: local, International, the National, early morning, morning, regional, breakfast, main daytime. As for me, I prefer television for entertainment. Many British people like to read newspapers. Some of them have thousands of copies. They write about people, who launder drug money, seize hostages, live in poverty and inequality; and about other people who cry for their very lives. Newspapers print news about different reforms, kidnappings, hijackings, natural disasters and political scandals. There are a lot of gossip newspapers. Most of them are tabloid and have a lot of interesting pictures, like in magazines. But sometimes these newspapers make mistakes, so we must learn the difference between fact and fantasy. Some people like newspapers that publish crosswords or damaging information about our life. Many of them help us to understand the world. I think it will be better if these newspapers include the readers’ understanding of the events. All newspapers want to be at the center of attention. So news in the front page can be grave, shocking, manicured or well-written. I think that bad news sells newspapers. Many British newspapers, even Herald Tribune, publish articles that can bring tears, but other articles can take up an entire page and be a real eye-opener or they can paint a very rosy picture of our life and bring tears and laughter. I suppose solid newspapers like Herald Tribune can be a mirror of our society. Herald Tribune is an authoritative source of news and a standard reading for diplomats and government officials and also talks of rights, pictures the way people cope with life. But not only newspapers help us to understand the world we live in.

 There is no subscription in British newspapers. You may buy any on sale. There are two main types of newspapers: the "popular" papers and the "quality" papers. The popular papers are less in size, with many pictures, big headlines and short articles. They are easy to read. They are such papers as "Daily Express", "Daily mail", "Daily Mirror", "Daily Star", "The Sun" and others. The "quality" papers are for more serious readership. These papers are bigger in size, with larger articles and more detailed information. The "quality" papers are - "The Times", "Daily Telegraph", "The Guardian", "Financial Times", "The Independent". In addition to daily papers we have just mentioned above there are Sunday papers. They have a higher circulation than the dailies. Sunday papers in Great Britain are such "quality" papers as "Observer", "Sunday Times", "Sunday Telegraph" and such "popular" papers as: "News of the World", "Sunday Express", "Sunday Mirror", "Mail on Sunday".

Also there is a great number of flashy magazines in UK. There are a lot of modern, glossy and political magazines, which are crying for attention. The most famous British magazine is “Time”. It is best-known for its serious publications and has many beautiful pictures. This magazine doesn’t reprint stories from established foreign magazines and sells readers to advertisers. As I said before there is a great number of correspondents in UK. I think it is a very hard work to follow the news, shine light on a lot of dark places and publish sometimes damaging information.

An old law of advertising says share of mind leads to share of market.

Literature

The invention of paper played a very important part in the development of books. In the 11th century the art of papermaking reached Europe but no trace of printing was found in Europe until 1423. It is known that Johann Gutenberg secretly tried out ways of printing in Strasbourg, Germany, in 1440. The knowledge of the methods of printing spread so quickly over the Continent of Europe that by the year 1487 nearly every country had started printing books. Later people began to learn how to make paper more quickly and cheaply and of better quality. As a result of this, books became much lighter and smaller. The first person to print books in the English language was, William Caxton.

Books and literature play a really big role in the life of British people. There are a lot of people there who like books, because they help them understand the world we live in. They transport them into new worlds, introduce them to amazing people who lived exiting lives and leave a mark on them. As for me, I treat books as an essential ingredient of life like air, food and water. I think that people in UK are rather ordinary and read books for pleasure and curiosity. Many people like to read books from cover to cover; others read only the passages that are interesting. These days Great Britain has a great number of writers and poets. Why not be a writer? As a freelance writer, you can earn very good money in your spare time, writing the stories, articles, books, scripts ect. That editors and publishers want. Millions of pounds are paid annually in fees and royalties. Earning your share can be fun and creatively fulfilling. I would like to tell you about some very famous writers. William Shakespeare was one of the greatest and famous writers of the world. Many people know and like his works but many facts of Shakespeare's life are still unknown. William Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-on- Avon, a small English town. He studied at local grammar school because his father wanted his son to be an educated person. While studying at school, William didn't have much free time but he liked to go to the forest and river Avon. Young William liked to watch actors and actresses who visited Stratford-on-Avon. He was fond of actor's profession and decided to become an actor. William Shakespeare lived in Stratford until he was twenty-one. He got married and had three children. At the age of 21 William left Stratford for London to join a company of actors. He was a very good actor and an excellent playwright. William Shakespeare lived and worked in London for 25 years. By the end of the 16^th century William Shakespeare and his friends had enough money to by build their own theatre — the Globe.                 In all Shakespeare wrote 37 plays, 2 long poems, a sonnet cycle of 155 small pieces. William Shakespeare had a natural gift for comedy. In his comedies "Two Gentlemen of Verona", "As you Like It", "The Twelfth Night" William Shakespeare describes the adventures of                  young men and women, their love, friendship, happiness. Shakespeare's tragedies "King Lear", "Othello", "Romeo and Juliet" depict noblemen who opposed evil in the world. Since they were written there has never been a time when at least some of Shakespeare's plays were not staged. In England and other countries it is the highest honour for an actor to be invited to play in a comedy or a tragedy by Shakespeare. In the last 35 years all the plays by W. Shakespeare have been filmed. Since 1879 Shakespeare's Festival has been held every year at Stratford-upon-Avon.  Besides plays Shakespeare wrote a lot of poetry, which is translated into many languages and is well-known through- out the world. William Shakespeare died in 1616. But his creations are still popular now and millions of people still admire them. Stratford-on-Avon, where Shakespeare was born, is now one of the most popular tourist centers. But it was not so many years ago. In the 18th century only a few relics of Shakespeare were left — his tomb. New Place (a large house which was built in place of Shakespeare's own house), the mulberry tree that he had planted, and his birthplace. People from London and other places came to see these relics. Most of them came to New Place where they wanted to see the famous mulberry tree in the garden. The owner of New Place wasn't much interested in Shakespeare. He didn't like the fact that so many visitors came to his house asking to see the mulberry tree. So in 1756 he cut down the tree and his life became quiet. But it didn't last long. The people who came to Stratford-on-Avon to see Shakespeare's tree at first were surprised, then they got so angry that the owner of New Place had to leave Stratford. After Stratford lost one of the most famous relics of Shakespeare, the city fathers decided to do something to attract people there. They asked the greatest actor of the time David Garrick to organize a festival in Stratford. Garrick planned to do it in the first week of September, 1769. He wanted the festival to be the greatest outdoor festival staged in

England. At six o'clock in the morning of Wednesday September 6 the festival was opened. Many people came to Stratford. The first day was successful, and Garrick was happy. On the second day it rained hard. The second-day evening ended as it began — in the rain. On the third day all the people left Stratford, Garrick returned to London very sad. But his festival was the beginning of a tradition. Stratford is now famous for its Shakespeare festivals. Every year a lot of people come to Stratford for the Festival season which lasts from April to September.

Then I would like to speak about Charles dickens, who was one of the greatest novelist in the English literature. In his books he showed a real world and people of Victorian England.

Charles Dickens was born in 1812.He lived in the south of England when he was a little boy. His father worked in an office. He was a very clever man, but he was very poor. Charles had many brothers and sisters, but he did not often play with them. His father had many books and Charles liked to read them. He learned to read very early. When Charles was 10 years old, his family went to London. There his father got into debt (as he had little money) and then into debtor's prison. So little Charles began to work when he was ten. That was the beginning of Charles' hard life. He worked at a small factory in London, pasting labels on blacking bottles. He had to work in a dirty room with no windows. He did not like his work, but he had to work at the factory for two years. Then he went to school for three years, but he did not learn much at school. He learned much at home, from his father and from other clever people. Later he worked as a reporter to the Parliament and became a writer of short stories. In 1837 he published his first novel "The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club". And the young reporter became a famous writer. Then he published novel after novel — "Oliver Twist", "Dombey and Son", "David Copperfield" and many other good books. His books are very interesting. They tell us about the hard life of the poor people in England of that time. When we read his books, we sometimes laugh, but we often want to cry. Charles Dickens died in 1870. He is one of the greatest novelists in the English literature. Dickens lived more than a hundred years ago, but people in the whole world like to read his books today, because in his books he showed a real world and people of Victorian England.

So you see that there is no doubt, that there are a lot of marvelous, powerful, prolific and gifted writers in Great Britain.

Science and scientists

Sometimes in science the dark horse comes in before the favorite.

It is practically impossible today to live without science. All our life contains of different science facts and discovers. Science help us to investigate why we act the way we do, separate the hope from the hype and, of course, understand the secrets of life. Many years ago people didn’t know why it was cold outside in winter. But now people are more knowledgeable and can understand, explain and even prove these things. It is very difficult to overestimate the role of science in the life of human beings, because science and technologies really advance the extension frontiers of human knowledge, give people a high standard of living, revolutionaries the way we work, learn, entertain ourselves, communicate. Science has given exciting achievements in medicine, in space exploration. The first serious story of space travel was written in 1640 by Bishop Wilkins of England. He described physical conditions on the Moon and he also said about the ways man could possibly live on the Moon. All these things are helping to combat human sufferings, poverty, hunger, war and disease, control and monitor nature. Science has a tremendous effect on men’s lives and thought. There are so many scientists in Britain. A mankind owes people who work in different sciences a lot: they give their chosen science all their time, strength, skills, even live. I think that scientists are in some way crazy because many of them are fond of volcanic eruptions, tycoons and tornadoes.

They carry out observations, experiments and excavations, trying to find out new sources, products and proofs, that their hyposises are true. They formulate theories and general principles, seek new methods of analysis, race around the globe to study different phenomena. They build up theoretical models and put forward ideas, prove their fancies, some of them risk their life experimenting on themselves. Energy and curiosity are their life-blood. In my opinion priorities should be given to Sir Isaak Newton. Mankind owes a lot to this great English scientist, astronomer, and mathematician who invented a new kind of mathematics, discovered the secrets of light and colour, and showed how the universe is held together.

Newton was born at Woolsthorpe on December 25, 1642. He attended grammar school. As a boy, he was more interested in the making of chemical  devices than in studying. His youth inventions included a windmill that could grind wheat and maize and a water clock run by the force of dropping water. He left school when he was 14 to help his widowed mother to manage her farm. But he spent so much time reading, he was sent back to school.

He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661. He showed no exceptional abilities during his college career and graduated in 1665 without any particular distinction. He returned to Cambridge in 1667 and became professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1669. He lectured once a week on arithmetic’s, astronomy, geometry, optics, or other mathematical subjects. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1672.

Newton became active in public life. He became the Cambridge University member of parliament in 1689 and held his seat until Parliament dissolved the following year. He was appointed master of the mint in 1699, a position he held until his death.

He left Cambridge and settled permanently in London in 1701. He became president of the Royal Society in 1703 and was reelected annually until his death. Queen Anne knighted Newton in 1705. He died in 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abby.

Newton discovered how the Universe is held together. The concept of a universal force came to him while he was alone in the country. He had been forced to flee there because of the outbreak of bubonic plague in the city of Cambridge. During this time, he suddenly realized that one and the same force pulls an object to earth and keeps the moon in its orbit. He found that the force of universal gravitation makes every pair of bodies in the universe attract each

other. The force depends on the amount of matter in the bodies being attracted and the distance between the bodies. The force by which the earth attracts or pulls a large rock is greater than the pull on a small pebble because the rock contains more matter. The earth's pull is called the WEIGHT of the body. With this theory, Newton explained why a rock weighs more than a pebble.

Newton's discoveries in optics laid the foundation for the science of spectrum analysis. This science allows us to determine the chemical composition, temperature and even the speed of such hot, glowing bodies as a distant star or an object heated in a laboratory. Newton discovered that sunlight is a mixture of light of all colours. He passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism and studied the colours that were produced. A green sweater illuminated by sunlight looks green because it largely reflects the green light in the sun and absorbs most of the other colours. If the green sweater were lighted by a red light or any colour light not containing green, it would not appear green. The study of light led Newton to consider constructing a new type of telescope in which a reflecting mirror was used instead of a combination of lenses. Newton's First reflecting telescope was 15 centimeters long, and, through it, Newton saw the satellites of Jupiter.

Newton is most famous for his discoveries on the laws of motion and theories of gravitation published in 1687. This work, usually called PRINCIPIA is considered one of the greatest single contributions in the history of science. It explained what happens on earth and in the heavens.

So if there were no scientists at all, now we would live in another building and couldn’t understand different natural phenomena. Scientists play a very big role in the life and society of Great Britain.

Education in Britain

Even the best schools can’t teach everything

  Today there is a great number of schools in Britain. Many of them has a good reputation, no brick wall or iron fence separating school premises from backyards of a long row of lodging houses or a with a focus in Math’s and science. There are a lot of subjects, than are best developers of mental muscle or the most important. In general school helps to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society, encourages each pupils to develop his or her interests in many areas. I fully agree with the statement that school insists on having pupils memorize mountains of information but provides good education but can’t enforce pupils to accept it. I partially agree that students copy out their homework, play hooky, live on their nerve-ends all the time, rebel against doing homework or even put off doing homework until the last moment. But never the less some of them are capable of accelerated learning and behaves properly.  All state schools in Britain are free, and schools provide their pupils with books and equipment for their studies. Nine million children attend 35.000 schools in Britain. Education is compulsory from 5 till 16 years. Parents can choose to send their children to a nursery school or a pre-school playgroup to prepare them for the start of compulsory education. Children start primer school at 5 and continue until they are 11. Most children are taught together, boys and girls in the same class. At 11 most pupils go to

  secondary schools called comprehensives which accept a wide range of children from all backgrounds and religious and ethnic groups. Ninety per cent of secondary schools in England, Scotland and Wales are co-educational. At 16 pupils take a national exam called "GCSE" (General Certificate of Secondary Education) and then they can leave school if they wish. This is the end of compulsory education. Some 16-year-olds continue their studies in the sixth form at school or at a sixth form college. The sixth form prepares pupils for a national exam called "A" level (advanced level) at 18. You need "A" level to enter a university. Other 16-year-olds choose to go to a college of further education to study for more

go to the same public school as their parents and their grandparents. Eton is the best known of these schools. The majority of independent secondary schools, including public schools, are single-sex, although in recent years girls have been allowed to join the sixth forms of boys' schools. Independent schools also include religious schools (Jewish, Catholic. Muslim etc.) and schools for ethnic minorities.

Education in Britain

Even the best schools can’t teach everything

  Today there is a great number of schools in Britain. Many of them has a good reputation, no brick wall or iron fence separating school premises from backyards of a long row of lodging houses or a with a focus in Math’s and science. There are a lot of subjects, than are best developers of mental muscle or the most important. In general school helps to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society, encourages each pupils to develop his or her interests in many areas. I fully agree with the statement that school insists on having pupils memorize mountains of information but provides good education but can’t enforce pupils to accept it. I partially agree that students copy out their homework, play hooky, live on their nerve-ends all the time, rebel against doing homework or even put off doing homework until the last moment. But never the less some of them are capable of accelerated learning and behaves properly.  All state schools in Britain are free, and schools provide their pupils with books and equipment for their studies. Nine million children attend 35.000 schools in Britain. Education is compulsory from 5 till 16 years. Parents can choose to send their children to a nursery school or a pre-school playgroup to prepare them for the start of compulsory education. Children start primer school at 5 and continue until they are 11. Most children are taught together, boys and girls in the same class. At 11 most pupils go to

  secondary schools called comprehensives which accept a wide range of children from all backgrounds and religious and ethnic groups. Ninety per cent of secondary schools in England, Scotland and Wales are co-educational. At 16 pupils take a national exam called "GCSE" (General Certificate of Secondary Education) and then they can leave school if they wish. This is the end of compulsory education. Some 16-year-olds continue their studies in the sixth form at school or at a sixth form college. The sixth form prepares pupils for a national exam called "A" level (advanced level) at 18. You need "A" level to enter a university. Other 16-year-olds choose to go to a college of further education to study for more

practical (vocational) diplomas relating to the world of work, such as hairdressing, typing or mechanics. Universities and colleges of higher education accept students with "A" levels from 18. Students study for a degree which takes on average three years of full-time study. Most students graduate at 21 or 22 and are given their degree at a special graduation ceremony.  Seven per cent of British schoolchildren go to private schools called independent schools. There are 2.400 independent schools and they have been growing in number and popularity since the mid-1980s. Parents pay for these schools, and fees vary from about 250 pounds a term for a private nursery to 3.000 pounds a term or more for a secondary boarding school. Most independent schools are called prep (preparatory) schools because they prepare the children for the Common Entrance Exam which they take at the age of 11. This exam is for entry into the best schools. The most famous schools are called "public schools" and they have a long history and traditions. It is often necessary to put your child's name on a waiting list at birth to be sure he or she gets a place. Children of wealthy or aristocratic families often

go to the same public school as their parents and their grandparents. Eton is the best known of these schools. The majority of independent secondary schools, including public schools, are single-sex, although in recent years girls have been allowed to join the sixth forms of boys' schools. Independent schools also include religious schools (Jewish, Catholic. Muslim etc.) and schools for ethnic minorities.

Health in Britain 

People all over the world suffer from different diseases: indigestion, depression, burns, severe complications and other. Today they became a real part of our life, that’s a pity. So I can say, that people in Britain also pain. Many of them think that if they have a cold and treat it properly it will last seven days, if they don’t it will last a week. But what is like to be ill. You wake up one morning and your head aches, your throat is burning, you feel hot and shivery, you have a pain in your legs, you feel sick, and you can’t imagine eating or walking or even lighting. There is nothing for it but stay in bed. Perhaps the doctor comes and pokes you about and soon after nasty medicine or pills have to be taken. British have an excellent medical service. But nevertheless to prevent illness and to keep their figure in good shape they go to fit-keep classes. All people in Britain go running every morning or jogging, do very energetic exercises or at the end frequent discotheques. It is a great advantage, that being healthy is very modern in British society. They prefer not to smoke, because smoking can be a dangerous addiction, leads to lung cancer, is a deep-rooted habit and is very bad for your health. Also it is forbidden in some places. Surgeon general’s warning: smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease, emphysema and may complicate pregnancy. So a sound mind is in a healthy body.

Sports in Britain

  People all over the world are fond of sports and games. People take up sports in order to be legendary, display skills and physical powers, become folk heroes, reach celebrity status, improve spiritually and emotionally and be media stars. All necessary facilities are provided for them: stadiums, sport grounds, swimming pools, football fields. Sport makes people swifter, higher, and stronger. I suppose, sport demands a lot of training and physical fitness. Because if you want to know the thrill of victory you must have a lot of training, and if you do this you can get everything you want. You can make a lot of money and win recognition. But sometimes you must risk your own neck, because sport is a very dangerous occupation.

The British have a reputation for being mad about sports. In fact they like watching sports more than playing them. The British are spectators and the most popular spectator sports are cricket and football. Football is the most popular game. Football, or soccer, is an example of a professional game. The game of football was first played in Britain, and later people began to play football in other countries. There are many amateur soccer players in Britain who play the game on Saturday or Sunday afternoon. Amateur clubs often play against professionals. Almost every school has its football team and every boy in Britain knows a lot about the game. He can tell you the names of the players in the most important teams; he has pictures of them and knows the results of many matches. Rugby-is another popular British sport which is played in other countries. It is also called rugby football. The story is told that in 1823 boys at Rugby school in England were playing football in the normal way, when suddenly one boy picked the ball up and ran with it. That was how a new game was born. There are two forms of rugby football: the amateur game and the professional game. The two games have different rules. Football is the favourite winter game in Britain and cricket is the favourite summer sport. Amateur cricket has the same rules as the professional game. A typical amateur cricket match takes place on a village green, an open space in the centre of the village. It is played between two teams — the "home" team and the "visitors" who come from another village. Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are very complicated. It is played by two teams of eleven men each, the player at a time tries to hit the ball with a bat. Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and the most famous golf course in the world, known as the Royal and Ancient Club, is at St. Andrew's. Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19th century. The most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the last week of June and the first week of July. Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many other sports such as rugby, swimming, golf horse-racing and the traditional fox-hunting.

Ecological problems

When it comes to protecting the environment, actions speak louder than words.

The sharpest problem in Britain is a problem of the environment. It was not Man who created nature. Nature is not ours, ours is only the possibility to live in it. To be part of it. Nature never does any harm to itself, only changes and makes adjustments. It is Man who ignores, contaminates and spoils the environment. Today it is impossible to hide the chilling fates mankind has left for the planet. Man interferes with nature dramatically: cuts down trees, roots jungles and forests in his dire necessity, destroying the sources of oxygen, mines for coal, chemical fertilizers, for gold, silver, minerals, and precious stones. Man demands much of the Earth's resources and too often is an ignorant, selfish and thoughtless caretaker because mineral wealth of the earth can not be recreated. A lot of environmental problems stem from the economic activities of humans. Day-to-day business of individuals and corporations leads to horrific environmental degradation. Shortages of drinkable water are increasingly common. One fourth of drinking water is unsafe. There is a decline of quality and quantity of marine food. It is a very serious problem for more than half the people of developing countries obtain more than 30 percent of their protein from marine fish. Air pollution u monitored practically in every country. Millions of people live in cities where the air is dangerous to breathe. Acid rains that affect land, lakes and rivers become a problem not only of the developed countries.

Salination and deforestation are responsible for climate change. Poor water quality means diseases, deforestation and overused land lead to soil and fertility loss and environmental disasters. About one-quarter of the Earth's species risk extinction within the next thirty years because the habitats of many species are being destroyed. Industry produces a lot of environmental problems everywhere. It consumes 37 percent of the world's energy, and emits 50 percent of the world's sulphur oxides and nearly all toxic chemicals now threatening the ozone layer with depletion. Pollution affects all forms of life and menaces the lives of millions. It spills over the borders and very often becomes a very serious transnational problem. One of the most serious problems is the problem of depletion of the ozone layer and the existence of a gigantic hole in it above the Antarctic which forms every spring. It causes an increase in ultra-violet radiation. Exposure to ultra-violet radiation reduces the effectiveness of the body's immune system, and so increases disease rates, and produces eye cataracts and skin cancer. Humans face one more serious problem — global warming that would affect climate and agriculture, change rainfall patterns and upset ocean currents. To achieve all these goals Man must increase environmental protection, stop spoiling the environment. He must reshape his activities: fight and control pollution, stop polluting by recycling, create new environmentally-sound technologies; install equipment to suck pollutants, reduce emissions, stop insatiable consumption of resources and intense production of wastes, build treatment plants for industrial waste. I think using hazardous and polluting technologies should be banned and sanitation improved. The most urgent task, to my mind is to educate people about the environment, to elevate concern about it and its problems.

We have a moral duty to look after our planet and hand it on in good order to future generation. That does not mean trying to halt economic growth. We need growth to give us the means to live better and healthier lives. We must not sacrifice our future well-being for short-term gains, nor pile up environmental debts which will burden our children. Where there are real threats to our planet we have to take great care. Prevention can often be better and cheaper than cure. But action in Britain is not enough. The Government will play a fall part in working out international solutions through bodies like the United Nations, the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the European Community.

The British Government will aim:

  to preserve and enhance Britain's natural and cultural inheritance;

  to encourage the more prudent and efficient use of energy and other resources;

  to make sure that Britain's air and water are clean and safe, and that controls over wastes and pollution are maintained and strengthened where necessary.

The world's population doubled between 1950 and 1987. More people means more mouths to feed, and that demands more agricultural land. That in turn can lead to deforestation and soil erosion.   By burning forests, draining wet lands, polluting water courses and overfishing mankind is rapidly driving many species to extinction. The Government is supporting international efforts for a global agreement to protect species of plant and animal life. The Government is also supporting projects to conserve endangered species of wild life such as the black rhino and the African elephants.

Looking after nature is looking to the future.

Vocabulary 

astonishing – удивительный

rub –  затруднение

mutual – взаимный

trustee – опекун

to advertise – рекламировать

fees – гонорар

royalty – авторский гонорар

hype – истина

 to owe –  быть обязанным

eminent –выдающийся

cosy –уютный

mansions – особняк

extended –растянутый

torture –пытка

plagued –обеспокоенный

promenades –пешеходная улица

to enforce –заставить силой

accelerated –ускоренный

village green –деревенская лужайка

pregnancy –беременность

to avert –избегать

to curb –сдерживать

to cause –вызывать

spell –короткие промежутки времени

to pursue –преследовать

cereal –овсянка

to disguise –скрыть

priest –священник

wax –воск

ferry-boat –паром

steamer –пароход

fare –плата

desolate –заброшенный

to claime –утверждать

descendant –потомок

chiefly –главным образом

constituency – избирательный округ

to resign –уйти в отставку

descent –происхождение

dissolving –роспуск

succession –право на наследство